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Edwin H. MessiteR, New Pork City (communication to the Secretary*):—Under the heading " Flues," Mr. Edwards refers to the Bee-hive construction, a cross-section of which is shown in Fig. 4 of his paper. A flue similar to this was designed by me about six years ago,' in which the walls though much thinner than those described by Mr. Edwards gave entire satisfaction. These walls, from 2.25 in. thick throughout in the smaller flues, to 3.25 in. in the larger, were built by plastering the cement mortar on expanded-metal lath without the use of any forms, or cribs, whatever, at a cost of labor generally less then $1 per sq. yd. of wall. Of course, where plasterers cannot be obtained on reasonable terms, the cement can be molded between wooden forms, though it is difficult to see how it can be done with an interior core only as stated by Mr. Edwards. In regard to the effect of sulphur dioxide and furnace-gases on the cement, I have found that, in certain cases, this is a matter which must be given very careful attention. Where there is sufficient heat to prevent the existence of condensed moisture inside of the flue, there is apparently no action whatever on the cement, but if the concrete is wet, it is rapidly affected by these gases. At points near the furnaces there is generally sufficient heat not only to prevent internal condensation of the aqueous vapor always present in the gases, but also to evaporate water from rain or snow falling on the outside of the flue. Further along, a point is reached where rain-water will percolate through minute cracks caused by expansion and contraction, and reach the interior, even though internal condensation does not occur there in dry weather. From this point to the end of the flue the roof must be coated on the outside with asphalt paint or other impervious material. In very long flues a point may be reached where moisture will condense on the inside of the malls in cold weather. From this point to

Jan 1, 1905

By C. Y. Cheng

THE purpose of this note is to show that the dislocation mechanism controlling the creep of Fe-4 pet Si alloy1 may equally account for the behavior of a-Fe2 over the same temperature range. A recent study of the creep behavior of a-Fe has been made by Ishida et al.2 Their results were in agreement with the mechanism of nonconservative motion of jogged screw dislocations over the entire range of temperatures investigated, from 480° to 1045°K. However, the observed creep rate was much higher than that which could be accounted for by the above model unless the authors assumed that pipe diffusion became significant below 775°K. More recently, Cheng et al.1 inves-gated the creep of Fe-4 pet Si alloy over about the same temperature range and found that the results could be correlated fairly well with a dislocation climb mechanism as represented by Eq. [l]. Proceeding as shown previously,1 if creep is controlled by a single climb mechanism, at intermediate stresses, the shear creep rate, y, can be represented by where n and K are material constants {K is independent of the temperature but dependent on the structure, that is, K decreases during the primary stage and reaches a steady-state value over the secondary stage of creep), t is the applied shear stress, G is the shear modulus, gc is the free energy of activation for creep (usually equal to that for self-diffusion, gd), and RT has the usual meaning. By solving for y, the apparent activation energy for creep, Q which can be determined experimentally, is given by where hc is the enthalpy of activation for creep which usually is also equal to that for self-diffusion, h^. By using Eq. [2], the data in Fig. 2 of Ref. 2 can be re-plotted as shown in Fig. 1. By comparing the two figures, it is seen that the slight increase in the apparent activation for creep over Region II, as noted in Fig. 2 of Ref. 2, is due to the influence of temperature on the shear modulus rather than of the stress on the

Jan 1, 1969

By A. B. Young

The difficulties encountered in the preparation of the lead smelter charge for the blast furnace and in the roasting and sintering of the ores, and the expert means taken for the preparation of these materials since the introduction of flotation concentrates into the lead smelter charge, have been described by W. H. Eardleyl and R. A. Wagstaff.² Function of Roasters and Blast Furnaces The lead smelter has first its roasters and its sintering devices, of which the primary object is the removal of sulfur from the ore or from the charge. The blast furnace follows; its function being the elimination of the gangue material left in the charge—the elimination of the insoluble, the iron, the zinc and the lime from the metallic lead. The secondary object is the separation of copper from the lead. A lead blast furnace is a sensitive apparatus. The materials composing the charge must be marshalled in certain proportions before they will make a fluid slag which will separate from the metallic lead. The silica, iron, lime and zinc must be put together in proportions that usually do not mist naturally in the ores, therefore fluxes are necessary. Function of the Flotation Cell The flotation cell—-speaking from the standpoint of a lead concentrate—has taken over part of the work hitherto performed entirely by either gravity concentration or the lead blast furnace. It has eliminated gangue from the concentrate and separated waste products from the lead. In so far as it has done that, it has usurped some of the function of the lead blast furnace; and it is much cheaper to run a flotation cell than a lead blast furnace. The effect in Utah, and it will be similar to effects in other districts. has been to remove a great deal of the gangue by means of flotation, whereas in the old clays it was eliminated by means of sme1ting. In this district, as in others, the insoluble content of the ores has been greatly out of proportion to the iron and lime content to make a proper slag

Jan 1, 1928

By T. Busch, R. A. Dodd

The solubility of hydrogen in pure iron and pure nickel, and of nitrogen in pure iron, has been determined and agrees well with earlier data. Nitrogen is insoluble in pure nickel and cobalt. The solubility of nitrogen in Fe-Ni alloys also confirms earlier- work. The solubility of hydrogen in Fe-Ni alloys increases non-linearly with increase in nickel content, but the solubility of hydrogen in Ni-Co and Fe-Co alloys reaches a minimum at 75 and 50 at. pet, respectively. The solubility of nitrogen in Fe-Co alloys decreases approximately linearly with increase in. cobalt content. Nitrogen is insoluble in Ni-Co alloys. Determined interaction parameters are in good agreement with predictions of Gokcen and Ohlani. THE solubility of hydrogen and nitrogen in liquid iron and iron alloys has been studied by various investigators.'-l' The method of solubility measuremerit due to Sievertsl is usually preferred when the vapor pressures of the liquid components are sufficiently small, but other techniques such as sampling the equilibrated melt and then analyzing by vacuum fusion have been used quite often. Previously reported data on the solubility of hydrogen and nitrogen in ostensibly pure liquid iron are summarized in Table I; certain of the quoted results were obtained by interpolation of the published data. Agreement between the various investigators is only fair, indicative of the experimental difficulties involved in obtaining gas solubility data. The only report found on the solubility of hydrogen in pure nickel is that of Sieverts.2 The solubility of nitrogen in iron-nickel alloys has received some attention, 10, 11 the results indicating that the solubility decreases with increase in nickel content, becoming zero for pure nickel. There is no published information on the solubility of these gases in either pure cobalt or alloys containing cobalt EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE Sieverts' method of solubility measurement was used throughout the investigation. The construction of the melting chamber is somewhat different from A. Optical pyrometer F. Alundum cover B. Vycor chamber G. Alumina crucible C. Furnace coils H. Alundum sand D. Glass water jacket I . Alundum thimble E. Chamber support J . Detachable vycor base sealed with de Khotinsky cement

Jan 1, 1961

"In the spring of 1927, six members of the American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers met for dinner at the Chemists' Club in New York to discuss the possibility of setting up a committee within the Institute to further the current interest in the science of steelmaking. Attention' to this subject had been crystallized by a symposium held by the Faraday Society in 1925. ' After a prolonged discussion, ranging from thermodynamics to slag conditioning, it was decided to approach the Institute with the request that a standing committee on "The Physical Chemistry of Steel Making" be set up. This committee proposed to promote scientific and practical papers on the subject, and was designed to cooperate with the Open Hearth Committee of the Institute in bringing scientific developments to the attention of open-hearth operators throughout the country... . "As the life of the [Physical Chemistry of Steelmaking] Committee lengthened and general interest in the technical phases of steelmaking grew, it became evident that there was a distinct need for a book that might serve the open-hearth interests to better advantage than standard texts whose scope is necessarily wide and whose detailed exposition of the open-hearth process is, therefore, somewhat limited. With this thought in mind, the Committee, after some years of consideration and debate, embarked on the venture of writing a manuscript on `Basic Open Hearth Steelmaking'." The foregoing paragraphs, taken from the introduction by C. H. Herty, Jr. to the first edition, well describe the circumstances which led to the publication of "Basic Open Hearth Steelmaking" in the spring of 1944. The book consisted of nineteen chapters contributed by twenty-three authors and edited by the staff of Alloys of Iron Research and T. S. Washburn, B. M. Larsen, and J. S. Marsh with Frank T. Sisco as consulting editor. The Engineering Foundation and the Open Hearth Steel Committee of the Iron and Steel Division, AIME, made financial grants; steel companies and other organizations supported the publication by contributing time and expenses of staff members in their capacity as authors or editors. The volume was sponsored by the Seeley W. Mudd Memorial Fund and appeared under the

Jan 1, 1951

By R. A. Corley, W. R. Wilcox, J. R. Teviotdale

Chemical vapor deposition of hafnium carbide yielded whiskers, needles, dendrites, faceted crystals, and adherent coatings. The gas stream compositiom and the mass transfer conditions determined the habit of the deposit. The deposits were obtained at temperatures ranging from 1100" to 1800°C. HAFNIUM carbide has the highest melting point of any binary compound; therefore, its various potential applications are a subject of vital interest to the aerospace industry. The experiments described herein were performed to investigate the chemical vapor deposition of hafnium carbide with particular interest being placed upon the possible production of high-strength single-crystal whiskers for composite materials. In 1931 Moers 1 used a gaseous mixture of HfC14, Hz, and toluene to vapor deposit crystalline hafnium carbide on a tungsten filament heated to 2400°to 2800°C. More recently Lepie 2 deposited hafnium carbide on graphite using HfC14 and methane in a helium gas carrier. The pyrolytic depositions described here were accomplished in graphite tubes by using various gas mixtures and dopants. The resulting crystal habits included whiskers, needles, needle dendrites, bulbous dendrites, faceted crystals, and smooth, adherent poly-crystalline layers. EXPERIMENTAL The depositions were carried out in an induction-heated graphite tube, 1.2 cm ID, which was contained in a vertical 9-cm-ID quartz tube. (A more detailed account of the experimental procedures and results is given in Ref. 3.) Refractory oxide fiber and tubes and graphite felt were utilized jointly and singly for therma1 insulation. A typical temperature distribution is shown in Fig. 1. The reactant gases were introduced at the top and removed at the bottom of the tube. Table I summarizes the experimental conditions and results. Many deposition habits were obtained. X-ray analyses showed that they possessed the hafnium carbide structure. Almost invariably these formed well above the point of maximum temperature in the graphite tube. The habit depended strongly on the gas composition. In a series of runs (e.g., run A) using HfC14 and toluene in H 2, hafnium carbide coatings, Fig. 2, were reproducibly obtained at the position where the tube wall was 1400°C, and bulbous dendrites, Fig. 3, were

Jan 1, 1969

The Committee on Nominations begs to submit the following names as its nominees for the respective offices indicated: For President, SIDNEY J. JENNINGS, New York. For Vice-Presidents. C. W. GOODALE,* Butte, Mont.; MARK, L. REQUA, San Francisco. For Directors, J. E. JOHNSON, JR., New York; ALLEN H. ROGERS, Boston; HOWARD N. EAVENSON, West Virginia; ROBERT AI. RAYMOND, New York; WILLET G. MILLER, Canada. The nomination for President has attracted the attention of a large number of members, as is evidenced by the receipt of many hundreds of letters and postcards. Most of these favored either Sidney J. Jennings or Philip N. Moore, each of whom received many cordial endorsements. Such a wide interest on the part of the members is a very wholesome sign, but where there is so much activity it is natural to expect a certain amount of criticism. Some of the letters indicate that the authors feel that the nomination of President should be left entirely to the Committee on Nominations without any effort by the members at large to influence them. Others feel that the nominations are largely controlled by a small group and that the members at large can have little influence. As the result; of the experience of the last few months; a majority of the Committee on Nominations begs leave to suggest that the method of making nominations be changed so that two candidates, at least, for the various offices to be nominated, and suggests that the Directors appoint a committee to investigate this question thoroughly with. a view to making definite recommendations. In accordance with its opinion that the best interests of the Institute would be served by a change in the Constitution, allowing the nomination of two candidates, and in view of the fact that this Committee has no authority to make more than a single nomination for each office, considering the high standing of both Mr. Jennings and Mr. Moore and the large number of members favoring each of these gentlemen, this Committee respectfully suggests the desirability of ,the immediate nomination of Philip N. Moore by a petition of 25 members in accordance with the present Constitution. This Committee regrets, its inability to make two nominations. Respectfully submitted, S. W. MUDD, Chairman.

Jan 1, 1917

LINN BRADLEY, H.' D. EGBERT and W. W. STRONG (communication to the Secretary*).--In the discussion of the paper, a request was made for a further explanation of the curves given on Chart I. In preparing the curves given on this chart, a typical blast-furnace top gas having the following composition by weight was assumed: Per Cent. C02 21.00 CO 24.00 Hz 0.25 CH4 0:25 N2 54.50 For any given top-gas temperature, Curves A, B, C, D, and E indicate in British thermal units the sensible heat lost in cooling the top gas to 60° F. by wet-cleaning methods. Top-gas temperatures are plotted as abscissae, sensible heats above 60° F. in British thermal units are plotted as ordinates, and separate curves are drawn for top gases carrying various amounts of moisture. For any given stove exit-gas temperature, curves A1,-B1, C1, D1, and E1, indicate in British thermal units the sensible heat carried out of the stoves by the moisture which is left in the top gas when it is dry-cleaned and enters the stoves hot. This moisture is removed when the gases are wet-cleaned and the sensible heat which it carries out of the stoves is therefore saved. As before, separate curves are drawn for top gases carrying various amounts of moisture. The curves in Fig. 1, therefore, indicate graphically how much more sensible heat is conserved by cleaning the top gases by the dry-hot method than is conserved by cleaning the top. gases by a cold-wet method and thus removing the greater part of the moisture carried by them. They also show of how little moment it is from a heat conservation standpoint whether or not the moisture carried by the top gases is removed before they enter the stoves. That wet cleaning secures the removal of this moisture and is thus to be recommended from a heat conservation standpoint is an argument often advanced by advocates of wet cleaning. The curves of Fig. 1 show how fallacious such an argument is.

Jan 6, 1917

We note with sincere regret the death of H. T. Chen,, who was killed by forest fire in the mountainous re-ion of Kokiu-Chang where he had been operating as Engineer in Chief of the Yunnan Tin Trading Co. Mr. Chen graduated in 1911 from the Department, of Mines, .University of California, being the first Chinese Government scholar in mining to attend that institution; and one of the first in America. He came of a distinguished family, many members of Which are in official life in Peking and in his native province of Hunan, all of whom are noted for their classical scholarship. He was himself a Hsiao-tsai or Bachelor of Arts, a coveted degree of the old literati class, Which he won under the Manchu regime when he was still a stripling. His mining work in Yunnan was carried on with only the most primitive facilities and in a distant province, but was, nevertheless, attended with great success and profit for his company. The region is infested with brigands and rebellious troops. who frequently turn marauders and prey upon the countryside, and Mr. Chen has had to go to the mines always with a large armed guard sometimes aggregating 150 men and some hundreds of miners, also armed. Two armed squads of men keep in touch with his base 'at Kokiu-Chang every day to get supplies and food, and it is feared that the brigands who have thus been prevented from plundering and mobbing his parties have started 'he fires to burn him out, with the disastrous result reported. Mr. Chen has thus given his life to his country in the attempt to win for modern China and Chinese civilization the raw materials of her new industrial life. He did so cheerfully and with full appreciation of the dangers that beset him, and China regards this as one of the most noble sacrifices of her young sons on the altar of patriotism. He is survived by a daughter of two years and by his widow who was also a graduate of the University of California and will be remembered by her classmates as Lucy Kong, 1912.

Jan 7, 1917

By Colman Goldberg

IT is customary to plot crystallographic planes or axes on a Wulff stereographic net which is ruled with parallels of latitude and meridians of longitude. If a single crystal is placed at the center of a sphere, the coordinates of a crystallographic plane or axis are the coordinates of the point where the axis intersects the sphere. The standard (HKL) projection is the projection for which the sphere is rotated so that the (HKL) pole is at the center of the projection. Schiebold and Sachs' and many others have published standard projections for the more important planes of a cubic crystal. With Tables I and 11, it is possible to plot any plane (HKL) of a cubic crystal on a standard (001) projection if the absolute values of the individual H, K, and L are nine or less, which is almost always the case. Using the methods outlined by Barrett,' the standard (001) projection can be rotated so that any arbitrary plane is at the center of the projection. The tables are believed to be important for two reasons: 1—The heretofore published standard projections usually are not of the proper size to fit the stereographic nets available. With these tables a standard projection can be made which will be of exactly the proper size for the available stereographic net. 2—With the tables, planes that do not appear on the previously published standard projections can be easily plotted. For these reasons, the tables are especially useful in the study of optical reflections from etched surfaces and can also be used to make a standard projection for the axis which is normal to the macroscopic surface. (This axis can be found by X-ray or optical methods.) Then if the crystal is etched, the effect of the etchant can readily be determined by comparing the latitude and longitude of the reflecting planes (as determined with an optical goniometer) with the standard projection that has been prepared. Use of the Tables Fig. 1 shows the meridians and parallel which have been designated as zero longitude and latitude. The tables themselves are self-explanatory. The

Jan 1, 1953

By C. R. Boyd

The sulphuretted ores of Carroll and Grayson Counties, Va., Ore Knob, Ashe County, N. C., and Ducktown, Tenn., in their general position, are in the prolongation of the same massive deposits. The existence of the extensive ore-bodies has been well-established, not only in a practical way, but by the careful research of a number of men of science, including Dr. T. S. Hunt, Professor Kerr, Dr. Genth, Rogers, Safford, Professor Egleston, Dr. H. E. Colton, the writer, and others, and described in one or more of the volumes of our Transactions, as well as in other publications. The greater quantity of' these ores being pyrrhotite, although much of them carry nonmagnetic disulphide, their reduction on the gronnd will probably lead to better results than an attempt to mine and ship them to distant places; and their use as sulphuric acid producers, to be employed in the cheap manufacture of valuable fertilizers, will be chiefly the subject of this paper. The great deposits of Carroll County, Va., are now nearer to railway transportation than any of the others, being six to eight miles from the Cripple Creek extension of the Norfolk and Western Railway, now being constructed, the grading of which is in an advanced state of completion. I am not able to state what are the present prospects of an early completion of the contemplated line of railway to Ducktown. For a long while, during the time those deposits were mined and reduced for their copper, the works were forty miles from any railway ; and the same may be said of Ore Knob, N. C. The deposits in Carroll and Grayson Counties, Va., being now the most accessible to cheap transportation, will naturally claim the greater part of our attention ; though it may be pertinent to remark, just here, that the ores of Ducktown, like those of Carroll and Grayson, Va., exist in the undecomposed levels as iron and copper sulphurets, much of which is a non-magnetic disulphide, as stated, with occasional exhibits of sulphides, such as covellite, erubescite, etc. There are, now and then, small quantities of silver, lead, and zinc,

Jan 1, 1886

By Howard R. Hughes

In drilling for water and oil to reasonable depths through the generally soft yielding clay and sand formation of the Coastal Plain of Texas, Louisiana, and Mississippi, the rotating method of drilling was adopted, principally on account of the easy and quick penetration, and the low cost of the drilling plant. In favorable ground, free of heavy gravel and rock strata, as much as 1,600 ft. has been drilled in less than 36 hr., although such performances were of course rare. Hydraulic rotary drilling, or, as it is now called, rotary drilling, was used in the above States as early as 1880. The plant consisted of an ordinary derrick, a 25-h.p. boiler, a small hoist, a steam pump, and a water swivel with hose attachment, and an ordinary flat diamond-pointed bit. The successful drilling in of a phenomenal oil well by this process on Spindletop, near Beaumont, Texas, on Jan. 10, 1901, and the ascertained impracticability of drilling subsequent wells in the same locality by other methods (owing principally to heavy quicksand under pressure from below), brought rotary drilling into great prominence, practically to the exclusion of any other process throughout the Coastal Plain, and later on elsewhere. The method, as its name implies, involves the rotation of a pipe by means of machinery placed on the derrick floor. A drill bit attached to the lower end cuts a clearance for the drill pipe, with much the same motion and effect as an auger. Water forced through the drill pipe by means of a pump, and escaping through the bit, removes the cuttings and returns to the surface outside the drill pipe. In this manner the hole is kept open, permitting the drill stem to rotate freely. The pressure of the column of muddy water holds up the walls of the hole until it has been cased. Practically all the wells of the Gulf coast region, numbering nearly 10,000, have been drilled with this system. During the last five years its use has been extended to many other States and countries.

Jan 1, 1915

MINING AND METALLURGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA San Francisco Section The San Francisco Section of the Mining and Metallurgical Society of America held a joint meeting with the local section of the American Institute of Mining Engineers at the Engineers' Club, San Francisco, on Tuesday, Apr. 16, 1918. The meeting was preceded by a dinner. Letters from the parent body in NewYork asking for the consideration of the proposed bill before Congress, and an expression of opinion relative to the appointment of a Federal Administrator of Mines justified the joint meeting of the local sections of the two mining societies, in that a more representative opinion of the engineers of California could he obtained. The meeting was called to order at 7:15 P.M. by Mr. Frank H. Probert acting as Chairman. About thirty engineers were present. Mr. Probert read a letter of March 14, from Secretary Huntoon, asking that the meeting be called. He read excerpts from Bulletin 117 of February 28, 1918, of the Mining and Metallurgical Society containing a copy of the proposed bill, so that all present might be advised of its essential contents. He briefly commented on the urgent need of such legislation and invited discussion of the subject. After long and thorough discussion on the part of the members present, Professor Lawson made the following motion: I move that a resolution expressing the sense of the joint meeting of the local sections of the American Institute of Mining Engineers and Mining and Metallurgical Society of America be forwarded to the secretaries of the two societies to the effect that we heartily approve of the purpose and intention of the bill designed to promote and stimulate the production of minerals necessary for the successful prosecution of the war; and that we suggest prices should be fixed for the period of the war and two years thereafter, and that these prices, guaranteed by the Government, should apply at the nearest shipping point to place of production of the minerals. This motion was carried. The meeting then adjourned, and a telegram was sent by Mr. Probert, the Chairman, to Mr. Huntoon, notifying him of the motion that had been carried at the meeting.

Jan 7, 1918

G. McMEANS*—This paper is a very good demonstration of the use of a new tool for the solution of industrial problems of a physical nature. To have solved this problem without the use of radioactive tracers would have required a far greater amount of investigation and work. The authors have described their work in such detail and in such a manner as to suggest the possibilities of the use of such tracer studies in the solution of many perplexing problems of industry. R. E. BREWER †—The authors are to be congratulated on this very excellent paper, which describes the results obtained by utilizing radioactive tracers in investigating the complicated reactions in the coking process. The paper has especial merit because the study was made under typical operating conditions in a commercial coke oven. Considering all the difficulties involved, the results obtained are excellent. My brief comments will relate primarily to the method used for determining the sulphur in the gas and to the value of the data obtained in stimulating further research. In discussing their results, the authors state (p. 17) that "Of the total sulphur charged to the oven in the coal 95 pct was accounted for in the coke and gas. Most of the sulphur unaccounted for is believed to have been lost in the gas, since the gas sampling system removed all the H2S but probably only part of the organic sulphur compounds present in the gas. Although sulphur in the acid-insoluble tar residue in the gas scrubbing bottles was determined and added to the total sulphur determination of each sample, it is doubtful whether an aliquot portion of tar for each sample was obtained." The reviewer believes that the authors might have obtained a better sulphur balance had they used an improved procedure for determining sulphur in the gas. The absorption train should have included a trap to remove the tar and am-moniacal liquor and a wash bottle containing 5 pct sulphuric acid to remove ammonia in the coke-oven gas before it entered the gas scrubbing bottles containing the ammoniacal cadmium chloride solution. Sulphur in the tar and

Jan 1, 1950

By J. D. A. Morrow

This discussion relates to the distribution of coal under the di , of the U. S. Fuel Administration beginning Apr. 1, 1918. At t' L a definite method of controlling and directing distribution was put int effect. Prior thereto, although some of the machinery utilized was in operation, especially in the few weeks immediately preceding' Apr. 1, distribution had not been effectively and comprehensively organized. The writer was called to the Fuel Administration by Dr. Garfield about the first of February, 1918, to assume general direction of the distribution of coal for the Fuel Administration, to develop the general plans, and to obtain practical men to assist in this work and in carrying through the program finally devised. A study of the situation and conferences with the Fuel Administrator and leading men in the business made it plain that it would be necessary to begin at the bottom, measure the undertaking, develop plans to meet the need thus shown, and build an organization to effect the distribution required. This work had to be done under war pressure in the midst of a bad coal shortage. The successful performance of such a task is always primarily a matter of putting competent men in the right places and giving them the power and opportunity to function properly together. In the Distribution Division of the U. S. Fuel Administration, the men who were chiefly responsible for whipping plans into practical form and then for carrying out these plans were A. W. Calloway, of Baltimore, President of the Davis Coal & Coke Co., who served as the Director of Bituminous Coal Distribution; S. Lovell Yerkes, of Birmingham, Alabama, Secretary of the Grider Coal Sales Agency, who assumed general charge of distribution while the new plans and organization were being perfected and then became the Assistant Director of Bituminous Coal Distribution; Warren S. Blauvelt, of Detroit, who was Director of Coke Distri. bution; A. S. Learoyd of New York, Director of Anthracite Distribution, in connection with the Anthracite Committee, consisting of Joseph P. Dickson, President of Dickson & Eddy, Chairman; S. D. Warriner, President of the Lehigh Coal & Navigation Co., and W. H. Richards,

Jan 1, 1920

By R. P. Alger, C. A. Doh, M. P. Tixier

The principle, the equipment and field operation of sonic logging are described. The tfio-receiver system produces logs independent of hole size and mud. Field experience is given and forms the basis for the interpretation of the log. The derivaiion of porosity values from measured velocities is discussed, according to the type of formations (hard formations, compacted sands, and unconsolidated formations). The time-average equation proposed by M. R. J. Wyllie, A. R. Gregory and L. W. Gardner is uscd as a basis for the computation of porosity in limestones, cemented sandstones and compacted sands. Variations in the lithologic character of limestones do not seem to change the porosity calibration markedly. The compaction of sands is related to the compaction of shale adjacent to them; and, thus, the shale velocity is used for the establishtnent of empirical relations for the computation of porosity in un-consolidated formations. Various forrnu.las are tentatively presented to account for shale and fluid content. Field experience demonstrates that considerable attenuation of sonic energy takes place in unconsolidated formations, particularly when gas bearing, and in fractrured formations. Unusually large attenuation produces skipped cycles, a feature easily recognized. The application of sonic logging to structura1 studies is featured, showing its possible integration with the dipmeter. Correlation and its application to the irrterpretation of seisrmic surveys are reviewed. The paper is illustrated with field examples. Sonic logging is the recording of the time required for a sound wave to traverse a definite length of formation. Sonic travel-times are inversely proportional to the speed of sound in the various formations. The speed of sound in subsurface formations depends upon the elastic properties of the rock matrix, the porosity of the formations and their fluid content and pressure. Below the "weathered" or low-velocity layer extending from 50 to 100 ft or so below the surface, sound velocities may range from about 6,000 ft/sec in shallow shales to as much as 34,000 ft/sec in dolomites. In hard formations (well cemented and/or compacted), the sonic log reflects the amount of fluid in the formations; hence, it correlates well with their porosity. In unconsolidated formations, which are usually of fairly high porosity, the sonic log gives an approach to porosity determination, when its readings are corrected for lack of compaction, shaliness, and fluid content. In such formations the sonic log may also indicate the presence of gas and may distinguish between oil- and water-bearing beds. Field experience with the sonic log in soft formations is more limited than that in hard formations. As a result, interpretation in soft formations is not as well developed at the present time. In all types of formations the sonic log is of considerable value for correlation and for the more detailed and accurate interpretation of seismic data. EQUIPMENT AND PRINCIPLE FIELD OPERATION The basic features of the sonic log" are a two-receiver system and two available short spacings. The log is recorded on film using a standard field unit. An SP curve is run along with the sonic curve to give a more interpretable log and to establish absclute depth control for comparison with other logs run in the same well. If desired, a gamma-ray curve may be recorded simultaneously with the sonic curve. Fig. 1 shows the sonic-gamma ray combination sonde. The sonic portion consists of a sound transmitter and three receivers mounted 3, 4 and 6 ft from the transmitter. When the first and second receivers are used, a sonic log of I -ft spacing (distance between receivers) is obtainea. Use of the first and third receivers provides a 3-ft spacing. The transmitter emits pulses at the rate of l0/sec. After the transmission of a pulse the first arrival of sound energy at each receiver triggers its response system. The differ-

By E. A. Gulbransen, K. F. Andrew

Weight loss measurements were made using a sensitive microbalance operating in a high vacuum system. The Langmuir equation was used to Calculate the vapor pressures of the several metals and alloys. Aluminum lowered the vapor pressure of i9,on in a 5.4 Al-94.6 Fe alloy, and of iron and chromium in a 4.8 Al-21.5 Cr-73.7 Fe alloy. The influence of oxide films formed on the alloys on the effective vapor pressures of the alloys was also studied. These studies were used to aid in the inte9,pretation of the high temperature oxidation of alloys based on iron, chromium, and aluminum. RECENT studies on the oxidation of chromium1 and the heat resistant alloy 5 Al-22 Cr-73 Fe showed transitions in the rate of oxidation at 900o and 1050oC respectively. The transition for chromium occurred at a temperature where the rate of evaporation of chromium from oxide-free surfaces equalled the rate of chromium atoms reacting with oxygen. This paper presents new vapor pressure studies on iron, chromium, and the specially prepared alloys 5.4 Al-94.6 Fe, 21.9 Cr-78.1 Fe, and 4.8 Al-21.5 Cr-73.7 Fe. The ternary alloy is similar in basic composition to the patented heat-resistant commercial alloy known as Kanthal. The binary alloys were studied to show the individual effects of aluminum on the vapor pressure of iron and of iron on the vapor pressure of chromium. The purpose of the proposed studies was to test the influence of metal volatility on the oxidation behavior of heat-resistant alloys based on iron, chromium, and aluminum. Since oxide films formed on the metal may limit metal transfer to the surface, the influence of oxide films on metal volatility was also studied. LITERATURE A) Vapor Pressure. The vapor pressure of iron has been studied by Jones, Langmuir, and Mackay,' Dornte and Nrton. Edwards. Johnston. and Ditmar. and McCabe, Hudson, and Paton. Stull and SinkeT have calculated a heat of sublimation at 298° K of 99.83 kcalper g atom. The vapor pressure of chromium has been reported by Bauer and Brunner,' Speiser, Johnston, and Blakburn, Gulbransen and Andrew,'' Vintaikin,o McCabe, Hudson, and Paton, and Kubaschewski and Heymer.12 Good agreement was obtained except for the early work of Bauer and Brunner.' Stull and Sinke7 calculate a heat of sublimation at 298°K of 95.0 kcal per g atom. Vapor pressure measurements on aluminum have been made by Brewer and Searcy,13 Bauer and Brunner,aand Farkas.I4 Stull and Sinke,7 giving Brewer and Seary's' data the most weight, derive a heat of sublimation of 77.5 kcal per g atom at 298 oK. B) Method. Two methods15 are used for measuring the vapor pressure of metals: 1) The Langhuir free evaporation method, and 2) the Knudsen effusion method, In the Langmuir method, used in the present work, the vapor pressure of the metal P is given by the equation: Here M is the molecular weight of the vapor species. T is the absolute temperature. (dw/dt) is the rate of sublimation in g per sq cm per sec and a is the condensation coefficient. a is a measure of the efficiency of condensation of molecules striking the metal surface from the vapor. If condensation results from each collision a is unity. This coefficient has been found to be unity,a, le for metals. These results establish the general validity of the Langmuir free evaporation method as applied to metals. EXPERIMENTAL A) Vacuum Microbalance Method. A modification of the Langmuir free evaporation method was used. Strip specimens were suspended from a sensitive microbalance operating inside of a high vacuum system. For alloys, microbalance methods17 must be used on large area samples at relatively low temperatures to minimize composition changes. The

Jan 1, 1962

By G. Derge, Ling Yang, John Henderson

Self-diffusion coefficients of aluminum have been measured by the capillary reservoir technique in liquids of the CaO-SiO2-Al2O3 system containirg equimolar portions of CaO and SiO2, in the temperature range 1400o to 1520oC. For the melt containing 6.0 mole pct Al2O3 the results can be expressed by the equation D = [(4.3 * 0.3) x 104] exp [(-85,000 * 17,500)/RT]cm~sec-'; for the melt containing 12.5 mole pct Al2O3, by the equation D = (5.4 i 0.2) exp [(-60,000 * 10,00O)/RT] cm2sec-: A concept of the constitution of these melts has been developed which proposes that the ratios O/(Si +Al) and Al2 O3/CaO determine the dominant species present. In recent years considerable work has been done on the system CaO-SiO2-A12O3 with a view to elucidating the structure of liquids of this system. Conductivity,' electromotive force, 3 density,4 and activity5 measurements have all contributed to an understanding of the problem, but as yet there is no entirely satisfactory theory that can account for all the observed experimental results. In principle, measurements of self-diffusion coefficients should give further information which is not obtainable in other ways. Self-diffusion coefficients for calcium, silicon,6 and oxygen7 have been measured. The present investigation extends the series of self-diffusion coefficient measurements to include aluminum and develops a concept of constitution for liquids of this system which is compatible with all the observed experimental results. EXPERIMENTAL The technique used in the measurement of the self-diffusion coefficient of aluminum was the capillary-reservoir method,8 A126 being incorporated in the melt contained in the capillary and inactive aluminum in the reservoir melt. This method was chosen because it minimizes convection currents' in the diffusion zone. It has the further advantage that the boundary conditions are such that a slight modifica- tion of Anderson and saddington's8 solution of Fick's Law yields an equation which requires measurements only of the length and the initial and final average specific activities of the solidified melt within the capillary. where t is the diffusion time, Co is the average specific activity of the melt contained in the capillary at t = O, C is the average specific activity of the melt contained in the capillary at t = t, 1is the length of the capillary, and D is the self-diffusion coefficient. The equation is of somewhat different form than those previously applied to high temperature diffusion studies because the specific activity of the melt in the reservoir was negligible both before and after diffusion. The diffusion apparatus is shown schematically in Fig. 1. It consisted of a silicon carbide resistance furnace containing the inactive melt in a graphite crucible, internal dimensions 7/8 by 4 in., enclosed in a 1 1/4- by 1 1/2- by 30-in. McDanel tube. A 3/8-in. McDanel thermocouple sheath to which graphite radiation shields and a graphite protection tube were affixed, was used to hold the capillaries. By moving this sheath through a rubber seal at the top of the McDanel tube the capillaries could be lowered into or raised out of the melt. Temperature was measured with a Pt-Pt 13 pct Rh thermocouple which was calibrated periodically against a standard couple. The furnace temperature was controlled to ± 5°C through the thermocouple immersed in the melt. Temperature variation over the depth of the melt was less than ± 3°C. The inactive melts were prepared from pure native quartz, assaying better than 99.9 pct SiO2, A.R. grade A12O3 and A.R. grade CaCO,. The same quartz and CaCO3 were used in preparing the active melts, the

Jan 1, 1962

By C. D. Stahl, R. Sandrea

This investigation was made to evaluate the comparative effects of the viscosity and the phase behavior of the buffer fluid in the composite solvent displacement of Bradford crude from waterflooded sandstone cores. Buffer slugs of propane, naphtha and other refined hydrocarbons exbihiting increasingly favorable viscosity ratios and decreasing solubility relationships, respectively, with Bradford crude, were used in long Berea sandstone cores. The secondary slug was isopropyl alcohol. The results indicate that higher oil recoveries are obtained for increasingly favorable phase relationships even when these are accompanied by unfavorable viscosity ratios within the range studied. Moreover, when propane is used as a buffer slug with an adverse viscosity ratio of 36, it gives higher oil recoveries than at a similar size slug of an any1 alcohol having a viscosity ratio of 1.09. The investigation was extended to the study of the effect of flooding rate on oil recovery. Residual Bradford crude was displaced from a 6-ft Berea sandstone core at rates varying from 0.3 to 30 ft/ day. The results show that as flooding rates were increased above or decreased below a minimum range of 1 to 2 ft /day, displacement efficiency increased considerably. INTRODUCTION In recent years, the alcohol slug process as a means of tertiary recovery has been the subject of many investigations. Gatlin and Slobod showed the advantages of the combination solvent slugs over the previous single-slug process.1 The combination slugs require less total slug material to obtain similar oil recoveries. The basic combination process involves injecting a primary or buffer solvent which is preferentially oleophilic, followed in turn by a water-driven slug of isopropyl alcohol. This procedure ensures that the buffer slug, which is miscible only with the reservoir oil, displaces and replaces the oil and is in turn displaced, together with the water, by the isopropyl alcohol slug miscible with both fluids. Likewise, for those reservoir oils that show some degree of phase incompatibility with isopropyl alcohol, as does Bradford crude, a proper buffer solvent can artificially make the alcohol process technically feasible. From an economic standpoint, propane or LPG would be the most appropriate primary solvent to be used in the field; however, Taber, et a12 have indicated that the alcohol process becomes highly inefficient in the displacement of light hydrocarbons because of the entrapment of these hydrocarbons during the stabilized bank formation. Moreover, since materials such as propane have such low viscosities, adverse viscosity ratios with most reservoir oils would be penerated, thereby possibly further reducing the efficiency of the buffer solvent. This paper presents the results of an experimental study of the comparative effects of viscosity ratio and phase relationships on the displacement efficiency of Bradford crude by means of dual solvents. The work was extended to include the effect of flooding rate on oil recovery. Rates within the range of field and laboratory values were used. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE APPARATUS The porous media used in this study consisted of two 10-ft and one 6-ft Berea sandstone cores, 3-in. in diameter. These were cast in galvanized steel pipe of 31/2-in. ID and the annulus was filled with Armstrong cement. The 10-ft cores were assembled by connecting two 5-ft units, which were joined together by 8-in. steel flanges fitted to the pipe. Intimate contact between the two sections was obtained by inserting a thin disk of the same sandstone between the core faces. The outlet and inlet ends of the cores were covered with threaded pipe caps. The injected fluid was gravity fed to two variable-rate positive-displacement pumps. The fluids were filtered before entering the core and the effluent was collected in an automatic fraction collector and

Jan 1, 1966

By Seymour G. Epstein

Using a modified capillary-reservoir technique, electromigration of dilute solutions of silver in liquid bismuth has been measured with relatively good precision. The effects of experiment duration, temperature. current density, and silver concentration have been investigated. Chemical diffusion coefficients of silver in liquid bismuth were also measured at temperatures ranging from 300°to 600°C. The effective valence of silver in bismuth was calculated as a function of temperature from a comparison of electric mobilities and diffusion coefficients. In an alloy containing 1 wt pct Ag, the electric mobility of silver increased from 1.65 x X sq cm per v-sec at 300°C to 2.38 x 10-4at 600°C; the diffusion coefficient in-creased from 3.0 to 17.5 x 10-5 sq cm per sec over the same temperature range. Calculated values of effective valence decreased from 0.28 at 300°C to 0.10 at 600°c. ALTHOUGH there has been considerable progress in the theoretical treatment of electron-transport properties in liquid metals, the mechanisms of mass-transport phenomena in liquid metals are still not clearly understood. This is especially true for the case of electro migration, alternatively termed elec-trotransport or electrodiffusion, which is mass transport induced by an applied electric field. A thorough knowledge of the mechanisms governing electromigration will considerably aid in understanding the electronic state of an impurity atom in a liquid metal. Electromigration has been long observed and studied in liquid metals and alloys. However, no satisfactory theory to explain the observed effects has been developed. The disparity in the present theoretical treatments, summarized by Verhoeven,1 has been attributed to the difficulty in describing the momentum transfer between electrons and ions and to the lack of precise measurements in liquid metals, especially at elevated temperatures. Prior to the last decade most of the electromigration studies were qualitative, in that only the direction of migration of alloy constituents was determined with any degree of reliability. These results have been summarized by schwarz,2 who was able to measure the electric mobility of several elements in mercury. More recently electromigration in liquid metals has been measured by a variety of techniques, with a varying degree of success. Mangelsdorf3,4 made precise measurements on dilute amalgams at room temperature, using a technique relating changes in composition to changes in alloy resistivity, but was unable to make measurements at elevated temperatures. Using a modification of this technique, Verhoeven and Hucke5 measured electromigration and resistivities in liquid Bi-Sn alloys. However, the resistivity technique is not sensitive to small composition changes and is impractical for very dilute alloys. Verhoeven and Hucke6 also measured electromigration of several solutes in liquid bismuth by adapting the capillary-reservoir method for determining diffusion coefficients in liquids. The reported precision of these measurements was poor, however, primarily due to the large uncertainties in the chemical analyses to determine concentration changes. Belashchenko7 has summarized the recent Russian investigations of electromigration, many of which, however, are of questionable accuracy. The present study was initiated to develop an experimental technique which would be both versatile and sufficiently sensitive to yield precise measurements of electromigration of solutes in dilute metal alloys at elevated temperatures. Using this technique, a comprehensive study of silver in liquid bismuth was made to determine the effects of experimental variables on the apparent electric mobilities. Chemical diffusion coefficients of silver in liquid bismuth were also measured over the same temperature range for comparison with the electromigration data. EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUE Electromigration Measurements. Electromigration of silver in liquid bismuth was measured by the capillary-reservoir technique, similar to that used by Verhoeven and Hucke,6 but modified to yield more

Jan 1, 1967