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By A. A. Steel

(Spokane Meeting, September, 1909.) DURING. the summer of 1905 I was employed by the U. S. Geological Survey to investigate the geology, Mining, and preparation of barite in most. of the fields of the United States. The Eastern districts have been more or less completely described ; the Virginia field in detail by Thomas L. Watson, in his paper, Geology of the Virginia Barite-Deposits,' and other fields in abstract., including statistics of production and references to current literature, by various authors .2 There have also been published a few details of the occurrence of barite in the lead-mines of Washington county, Mo.3 The other accounts of this district are erroneous and meager, and since this field is the most important one in the United States at the present time, a detailed description of the local geology seems doubly desirable. Barite-deposits are scattered over nearly the whole of Washington and adjoining counties, but. the product, is all mined from the areas indicated upon the sketch-map, Fig. 1, and is shipped from the stations of the St. Louis, Iron Mountain &. Southern railway, between Blackwell and Potosi, from 45 to 60 miles SW. of St.. Louis. The topography is for the most part gently rolling, with slightly graded streams, usually less than 200 ft. below the higher hill-tops. Along Mineral fork and Indian creek are :some steep bluffs and cliffs, affording good exposures of the

Feb 1, 1910

By Charles W. Perry

The options of enhanced oil recovery, coal syncrude, and shale syncrude are compared by approximately equivalent economics. The physical constraints for the major enhanced oil recovery processes are described, followed by new estimates of cost. The range for all three options in terms of light syncrude equivalent are $22 to $40 per barrel in 1980 dollars.

Jan 1, 1982

The following is an incomplete list of members and guests who called at Institute headquarters during the period Feb. 10, 1918 to Mar. 10, 1918: W. G. Anderson, St. John, N. B., Canada. Charles E. Locke, Boston, Mass. L. M. Banks, Camp Meade, Md. E. T. Lednum, Joplin, Mo. P. E. Barbour, Albany, N. Y. C.' K. McDonald, Washington, D. C. Alan M. Bateman, New Haven, Conn. C. T. Malcolmson, Chicago, Ill. Graham Bright, Pittsburgh, Pa. Stuart B. Marshall, Badin, N. C. J. F. Callbreath, Washington, D. C. T. C. Merriman, New Haven, Conn. J. E. S. Clark, Riverside. Cal. Arvid E. Nissen, Gary, Ind. G. H. Clevenger, Palo Alto, Cal. Herbert G. Officer, Conway, S. C. George C. Crossley, Trenton, N. J. J. E. Parker, Bulawayo, Rhodesia, S. Afr. R. H. Eagles, Palmerton, Pa. Francis R. Pyne, Elizabeth, N, J. Charles Enzian, Pottsville, Pa. Alfred Hull Ramage, Joplin, Mo. Albert H. Fay, Washington, D. C. H. H. Stoek, Urbana, Ill. David B. Gemmill, Crown King, Ariz. G. M. Taylor, Colorado Springs; Colo. Ronald Harris, London, Ont., Canada. Charles Tubby, St. Paul, Minn. Wm. J. Hayes, Colombia. So. America. J. B. Tyrrell, Toronto, Canada. B. B. Hood, Chrome, N. J. Edmund W. Westervelt, Ymir, B. C. 0. P. Hood, Pittsburgh, Pa. Carl Zapffe, Brainerd, Minn. H. M. LaFollette, LaFollette, Tenn. W. S. Boyd, formerly superintendent of mines of the Ray Consolidated Copper Co., has been appointed assistant general manager. William Campbell, Professor of Metallurgy, at Columbia University, is acting as metallurgist at the New York Navy Yard.

Jan 4, 1918

By Thomas A. Lang, John A. Bischoff

The use of rock bolts for the support and stabilization of coal mining excavations was introduced over 30 years ago and, since that time, has progressively increased until today it is the primary means of support and stabilization of large underground openings. Early analytical studies and work with photoelastic and physical models established that even highly fragmented rock could be stabilized by rock bolting and form a load-carrying structural member that would span an opening. For stability, interaction of the bolts is essential and it depends on the bolt tension, the length and spacing of the bolts, the characteristics of the rock, and the applied load. However, the development of an explicit functional relationship embracing all these factors proved to be elusive. A review of the early rock bolting investigations led to the concept that the basic element of a rock bolted roof is the reinforced rock unit (RRU), consisting of an individual bolt and the rock immediately surrounding and adjacent to it, and to the development of mathematical equations which give the minimum bolt tension required to ensure that the RRU's are stable relative to one another and act together as a structural member. Analytical procedures have been developed for integrating RRU's into a reinforced rock structural (beam-arch) member which spans an underground opening and providing a rational basis for the design and installation of rock reinforcement systems.

Jan 1, 1982

THE Nominating Committee appointed at the Division meeting in October and consisting of Frank A. Herald, A. W. Peake, C. R. McCollom, Joseph Jensen, H. W. Camp, C. P. Watson, F. Julius Fohs, George Otis Smith, J. B. Umpleby, J. M. Lovejoy and A. W. Ambrose, have presented the following ticket for the year 1929: Chairman, Joseph B. Umpleby; associate chairman, A. C. Rubel; secretary-treasurer, R. Van A. Mills; vice-chairman for Economics, Warren A.. Sinshein~er; vice-chairman for Engineering Education, H. C. George; vice-chairman for Engineering Research, Harry H. Hill; vice-chairman for Production, C. P. Watson;vice-chairman for Refinery Engineering, A. D. David. For Production Engineering Charles V. Millikan. is named vicechairman, with ,Charles E. Beecher, Glenn D. Robertson and W. W. Scott as associate vice-chairmen. The Executive Committee named is to consist of Joseph B. Umpleby, chairman with A. W. Ambrose, Charles E. Beecher, A. D. David, Glenn D. Robertson, H. C. George, Harry H. Hill, John M. Lovejoy, Charles V. Millikan, R. Van A. Mills, Earl Oliver, A. W. Peake, A. C. Rubel, W. W. Scott, Warren A. Sinsheimer and .C. P. Watson, members. Ballots will be mailed to members of the Division.

Jan 1, 1928

By Thomas B. Douglas

INSTRUMENTATION in the process industries can no longer be regarded as a convenience, but rather an absolute necessity. Although many chemical processes must already be conducted with instruments, every properly designed application of automatic process control will improve operation: 1) the product will be more uniform and of higher quality; 2) the manual labor saved will reduce cost; 3) uniformity of flow and uniform control of process will increase production; and 4) surges will be eliminated, making it possible to operate equipment near ultimate capacity at all times. Industrial instruments fall into two general classifications-those that measure and those that measure and control. The cement industry has been using instruments for a number of years, particularly in the burning process, primarily for indicating and recording. Automatic process control makes additional use of these instruments, and others, to control variables. Assisted by the instrument manufacturers, engineers at Ideal Cement CO. achieved considerable progress in determining how well the usual recording instruments could be made to control various phases of cement-making. The results of these experiments were used to make the new plant at Houston as wholly automatic as possible.

Jan 2, 1958

By G. E. Karantzavelos

Anew flotation process to recover alunite from low-grade alunite ores is described. The process begins with run-of-mine ore, reduced to less than 5 mm (0.2 in.), being preconditioned with the reagents before grinding and alunite flotation. From the preconditioning step, ore particles, impregnated with reagents, form pellets that subsequently disintegrate into the pulp during grinding. The second step is basically a standard alunite flotation step. Pilot plant test results show that an alunite concentrate assaying at least 85% alunite and less than 5% silica can be produced. Laboratory and pilot plant results were in excellent agreement, indicating that the new process is a viable means of alunite beneficiation. Plant results, using the new process, were superior to results from conventional alunite flotation procedure.

Jan 1, 1986

By J. Steininger

The Hallimond tube flotation of sphalerite and pyrite with sulfhydryl collectors has been found to be inhibited near neutral pH in the presence of copper salts. Alkalimetric titration studies of the reactions between collector and activator indicate that this effect is apparently related to the formation of basic copper collector complexes. The conditions of formation of these compounds and their stability are in good agreement with the depression observed in flotation experiments. The general procedure employed in the flotation of zinc sulfide minerals requires activation of the mineral surface by heavy metal ions, usually copper, which react more easily than zinc with the common short-chain ionic sulfhydryl collectors.' Commercially, zinc flotation is carried out under alkaline conditions (pH 7 to 10.5), but small-scale experiments indicate that zinc sulfide minerals can also be activated and collected under acid conditions. Selectivity, however, becomes poor at low pH and undesirable materials such as pyrite, silicates and carbonates tend to report in the float. Several years ago, Wark and Sutherland~, measured the contact angles of air bubbles on copper-activated sphalerite immersed in various sulfhydryl collector solutions. When represented, as in Fig. 1, on pH-sodium cyanide diagrams, the results are characterized by 'islands' of non-contact near neutral pH and

Jan 1, 1969

By AIME AIME

ADDRESSING the Ohio Section at a recent meeting in Columbus, Ohio, R. C. Allen, executive vice-president for Oglebay, Norton & Co., Cleveland, spoke on "The Iron-Ore Industry of the Lake Superior Region in Prosperity and Depression." The speaker considered this region in connection with the problem of national security. This is the age of minerals; progress depends on them; and next to agriculture, the mineral industry is of prime importance. The United States has no shortage of minerals rather an over-supply; but many mines have been and are being exhausted. The shifting of the sources of supplies of minerals so important as copper, petroleum, and iron to other countries would create internal strains and affect international relations. There will be no early decline of ore mining in the Lake Superior region unless it is forced by unwise public policies. Iron ore is industrial strength and self-sufficiency. A study of economic geography is important for statesmen and mining men, because the minerals essential for peace and war are haphazardly or irregularly distributed throughout the world. Of these minerals, 75 per cent are owned by 10 per cent of the population, mainly peoples of Anglo-Saxon origin.

Jan 1, 1934

By N. A. Gokcen, J. Chipman

Aluminum and oxygen dissolved in liquid iron were brought into equilibrium with pure alumina crucibles and atmospheres of known H2O and H2 contents to study the reactions: 1—Al2O3(s) = 2 Al + 3 0; 2—Al2o3(s) + 3H2(g) = 2Al+ 3H2o(g); and 3—H2(9) +O = H2O(g). Aluminum strongly reduces the activity coefficient of oxygen and similarly oxygen reduces that of aluminum. Values of the product [% All" • [% O]3 are much smaller than those found in previous experimental studies and are of the order of magnitude of the calculated values. ALUMINUM is the strongest deoxidizer commonly A used in steelmaking, but the extent to which it removes dissolved oxygen has been debatable. The relationship between aluminum and oxygen has not been determined reliably not only on account of the usual experimental difficulties at high temperatures but also because of uncertainties in the analyses of very small concentrations of oxygen and aluminum. The earliest experimental attempt of Herty and coworkers' was followed by a more systematic study of Wentrup and Hieber.' These authors added aluminum to liquid iron of high oxygen content in an induction furnace and considered that 10 min was sufficient to remove the deoxidation products from the melt. Parts of the melts thus obtained were poured into a copper mold and analyzed for total aluminum and oxygen (soluble plus insoluble forms), assuming that the insoluble parts were in solution at the temperatures from which samples were taken. It is conceivable that the furnace atmosphere in their experiments, consisting of mainly air at 20 mm Hg pressure, was a serious source of continuous oxidation and therefore that their oxygen concentrations were correspondingly high. Scattering of their data was explained to be well within the maximum inaccuracy of 10°C in the temperature measurements and errors of ±0.002 pct each in the oxygen and total aluminum analyses. Maximum and minimum deoxidation values, i.e., values of the product [% All' . [% O] differed by factors of 10 to 15; mean values of 9x10-11 and 7.5x10-9 ere reported at 1600" and 1700°C, respectively. Hilty and Craftsv determined the solubility of oxygen in liquid iron containing aluminum, using a rotating induction furnace. Pure alumina crucibles used in their experiments contained the liquid iron which in turn acted as a container for slags of varying compositions consisting mainly of Al2O3, Fe2O3, and FeO. The furnace was continuously flushed with argon, and additions of aluminum and Fe2O3 were made in the course of each experimental heat. The inner surfaces of their alumina crucibles were covered with a substance other than pure Al2O3, containing both iron oxide and alumina. Although frequent slag additions can change the composition of slag in the liquid iron cup formed by rotation, the inner surface of the crucible must depend upon the transfer of oxygen or aluminum through the liquid iron for any adjustment in composition. It is not clear that their metal was in equilibrium with the crucible wall, but it is clear that it was not in equilibrium with Al2O3. Their deoxidation product, [% A].]" • [% O]3, varied by a factor of more than 50; the average values of 2.8x10- and 1.0x10-7 were selected for temperatures of 1600" and 1700°C, respectively. Aside from the experimental determinations, attempts have been made to calculate the deoxidation constant for aluminum indirectly from thermody-namic data. Schenck4 combined the thermodynamic data for Al2O3 and dissolved oxygen in liquid iron by assuming an ideal solution. His calculated values are 2.0x10-15 and 3.2x10-13 at 1600" and 1700°C, respectively. Later, Chipman5 attempted to correct for the deviation from ideality and derived an expression which led to deoxidation values of 2.0x10-14 and 1.1x10-12 at 1600" and 1700°C, respectively. The errors in these treatments originate mainly from inaccuracies of thermal data and uncertainties regarding the activity coefficients of dissolved oxygen and aluminum. The purpose of this investigation was to study the equilibria represented in the following reactions in the presence of pure alumina: Al2O3(s) = 2Al + 3O K = aAl2.ao3 [1] Al2O3(s) + 3H2(g) = 2Al + 3H2O(g) H2O K2 = aAl2(H2O/H2 ) [2] H2(g) +O = H2O(g) K3 = 1/ao (H2) [3] The experimental method consisted of melting pure electrolytic iron, usually with an initial charge of aluminum, in pure dense alumina crucibles under a controlled atmosphere of H,O and H2 and holding

Jan 1, 1954

By J. Chupak, D. J. Salley, G. L. Simard

Radiotracers were demonstrated to be of considerable value in a study of the interaction of dithiophosphate with galena. The interaction had characteristics of both chemisorption and chemical reaction, being complex because of the nature of the galena surface. Sorption was rapid and markedly reversible, and flotation occurred at relatively small amounts of dithiophosphate sorbed.

Jan 1, 1950

By S. H. Chauvenet

Jan 1, 1882

By J. R. Thoenen

IN five years mineral wool has grown to a thirty-million-dollar industry from one whose output was valued, in 1933, at $1,700,000. Ten years ago, in 1928, there were only seven producing companies, with an annual output of but 50,000 tons. By 1936 fifty or more companies were producing half a million tons. The industry is still growing vigorously and will profit from the expected activity in building in 1339, for two-thirds of this material is used for building insulation and to assist in fire-retarding, in both new and old homes. It is as useful in the South, to protect against heat, as in the North, to keep out the cold, if one may speak nontechnically. It is a concomitant of air conditioning, that new addition to the American standard of living that began in theatres, department stores, and railroad dining cars, and is rapidly progressing down to small homes. Here, then, is an industry that is only beginning to have a present, and one with an almost certain important future; one that depends upon mining and the by-products of mining for all of its raw materials; one that every progressive mining man should know something about.

Jan 1, 1939

By Fredrick C. Kruger

Introduction This surprisingly little-known group of minerals, the nonmetallics, so-called for their lack of metallic luster, is the largest group of the mineral kingdom, and cinstitutes perhaps 75 percent of all mineral species. For the most part, these minerals are compounds of the common acids, oxides, hydroxides, and two elements, carbon and sulfur. The list of the non- metallic minerals, therefore, is very long. It includes the borates, carbonates, chlorides, fluorides, nitrates, phosphates, silicates, sulfates, and less commonly, arsenates, chromates, molybdates, suliides, tungstates, and vanadates, the latter groups, and many of the oxides, being sought principally for their metal content. Those nonmetallics used commercially are generally called the industrial minerals, although in addition this term also includes a considerable group of rocks. The list of industrial minerals and rocks is continually growing as new uses are found, and it now numbers over 300 commodities. The industrial minerals industry has developed since about 1920. There- fore, the development has been fast, and it has been more or less parallel with the development of the art of minerals beneficiation. General Discussion of the Group This group is so heterogeneous that it has defied logical, or widely accepted, classification, whether by origin, composition, or end use, and perhaps for this reason the industrial minerals generally have received short shrift in both teaching and research. Except for those involved with asbestos, cement, fertilizers, gypsum, salt, sand and gravel, few large companies have deigned to enter the field, and consequently most industrial minerals have been developed for the most part by the small operators or entrepreneurs. Yet surprisingly, except for one war year, the nonmetallics have always surpassed the metals in value and tonnage (Fig. 1). One main characteristic that most of the nonmetallics have in common is direct sensitivity to labor and transportation. In other words they are characterized by large bulk and low-unit value, and hence have what might be termed a "place value".

Jan 1, 1971

By Herbert Clark Hoover, Lou Henry Hoover

MOST illustrious Princes, often have I considered the metallic arts as a whole, as Moderatus Columella2 considered the agricultural arts, just as if I had been considering the whole of the human body ; and when I had perceived the various parts of the subject, like so many members of the body, I became afraid that I might die before I should understand its full extent, much less before I could immortalise it in writing. This book itself indicates the length and breadth of the subject, and the number and importance of the sciences of which at least some little knowledge is necessary to miners. Indeed, the subject of mining is a very extensive one, and one very difficult to explain ; no part of it is fully dealt with by the Greek and Latin authors whose works survive ; and since the art is one of the most ancient, the most necessary and the most profitable to mankind, I considered that I ought not to neglect it. Without doubt, none of the arts is older than agriculture, but that of the metals is not , less ancient ; in fact they are at least equal and coeval, for no mortal man ever tilled a field without implements. In truth, in all the works of agricul- ture, as in the other arts, implements are used which are made from metals, or which could not be made without the use of metals ; for this reason the metals are of the greatest necessity to man. When an art is so poor that it lacks metals, it is not of much importance, for nothing is made without tools. Besides, of all ways whereby great wealth is acquired by good and honest means, none is more advantageous than mining ; for although from fields which are well tilled (not to mention other things) we derive rich yields, yet we obtain richer products from mines ; in fact, one mine is often much more beneficial to us than many fields. For this reason we learn from the history of nearly all ages that very many men have been made rich by the

Jan 1, 1950

COUNCIL OF SECTION DELEGATES F J Meek, Chairman H A White, Vice-Chairman H R Gault, Secretary Division of Earth Sciences National Research Council 2101 Constitution Avenue Washington 25, D C

Jan 1, 1954

By B. VISWANATH

T HE Mysore iron works, at Bhadravati, about 2000 ft. above sea level in the Shimoga district of Mysore, British India, is served by a meter gage branch line of the Mysore State Railways. The works which were designed and erected by Perin & Marshall, who still act as consulting engineers, are surrounded by a thickly wooded country which sup- plies about 400 tons per day of wood for fuel. The ore deposits lie 20 miles to the south, and limestone quarries are close by the works. The Bhadra river sup- plies the works and the town with the necessary quantity of water. Dwelling houses for the employees

Jan 1, 1930

By A. W. Hahn

USE of gold leaf goes back to biblical and even to prehistoric times. Both gold and silver, as well as other metals, were employed in illustrating or illuminating manuscripts. The medieval monks also used bronze powders. Metals were subdivided as finely as possible by mechanical methods, or by granulation and then were pounded into finely divided flakes. Substances such as honey have also been employed, since early times to keep the flakes of metal apart during grinding. Stearic acid is a more modern agent used in flaking aluminum and other metals. Finely divided "blue powder" is a by-product in retorting zinc ores, and contains from 78 to 90 per cent of zinc metal. This has been used as a precipitant for precious metals in the cyanide process and for chemical reduction processes. The making of zinc dust by atomizing is a step well known in electrolytic zinc plants. The Thermit process of Goldschmidt also requires the use of finely divided aluminum.

Jan 1, 1937

By David Moskowitz, Ira Binder, Robert Steinitz

THE hard refractory borides of the transition elements of the 4th, 5th, and 6th groups of the Periodic System have been the subject of a number of recent investigations.'-' It is well known now that most of these elements form several different borides, and Kiessling8 has summarized the rules which govern to some extent the arrangements of the boron atoms in the various structures. Melting points of a few borides have been published." The systems Fe-B, Ni-B, and Co-B have been reported," but, as these borides are rather low melting, they are outside of the groups of boron compounds considered here. Brewer' has tested the stability of various borides and estimated a number of eutectic temperatures between different borides, but in no case was the complete system of a transition metal and boron investigated. The phase diagram becomes of special importance if the preparation of the borides from the elements in powdered form is considered; the lowest eutectic temperature will determine the first appearance of a liquid phase. Also, the knowledge of high temperature phases, if they exist, is important for the preparation of bodies from these borides by hot pressing or sintering. During the investigation of various metal borides,7 it was found that there were more boride phases existing in the Mo-B system than reported by Kiessling." They occur, however, only at temperatures above 1500°C and were, therefore, not found by him. This led to a study of the equilibrium diagram of the Mo-B system. ranging from 0 to 25 pct B and from room temperature to the liquidus. Part of this investigation was reported during the "Research in Progress" session at the 1952 Annual Meeting of the AIME.11 Raw Materials and Preparation of the Borides The raw materials used were commercial molybdenum and boron powder, both supplied by the Molybdenum Corp. of America. The molybdenum powder was 99+ pct pure? while the boron powder contained about 83 to 85 pct B. A large percentage of the impurities in this powder was oxygen, with the rest formed by iron, calcium, and unknown substances. The low purity of the boron used was, however, not considered detrimental to the final product, as most of the impurities evaporated at the high temperatures at which the borides were formed. The final product always had a minimum purity of 96 to 98 pct (figured as molybdenum and boron), with carbon, iron, and probably oxygen being the remaining products. Carbon is usually present as graphite. The chemical analyses always confirmed the compositions which corresponded to the crystallographic structures as determined by X-ray diffraction, and the boron content of the finished product agreed closely with that of the starting mixture; no boron was lost during the boride preparation. The chemical analysis methods employed for molybdenum and boron were previously described by Blumenthal.12,13 The powders were mixed by hand in the desired proportions, compressed at room temperature under low pressure, and then heated under hydrogen to about 1500" to 1700°C in a graphite crucible to form the borides. Usually, the three well-known borides Mo,B, MOB, and Mo,B,, which are stable at room temperatures, were prepared in this way, and all other compositions were made by mixing these borides in various ratios or by the addition of molybdenum or boron powders for the very low or very high boron contents. Preparation of two-phase compositions directly from the elemental powders was tried only occasionally to check whether equilibrium could be reached in this way. Experimental Procedures The stable borides were mixed in the desired ratios and heated under hydrogen in graphite crucibles to various temperatures. The well insulated crucibles were heated in a high frequency induction furnace. Special care was taken to obtain exact temperature measurement, which proved much more difficult than originally anticipated. It is believed that individual temperature measurements have an error of less than ±25ºC, while melting or transformation temperatures are accurate within ±50°C. The temperatures were measured with an optical pyrometer which was aimed at the closed end of a graphite tube extending down into the crucible. close to the samples. Attempts to measure directly through the hydrogen exit stack failed. The crucible arrangement is shown in Fig. 1. Heating was done at a slow rate to be sure that the temperature inside the crucible was uniform. The specimens were kept at the final temperature for about 30 min. For the investigation of high temperature phases, some samples were quenched. They were heated, without atmosphere protection, in a very small graphite crucible which could be rapidly removed from the high frequency coil, and dropped into water. These quenched samples were afterwards annealed to establish the equilibrium at lower temperatures. The melting points or the positions of the solidus and liquidus lines were determined by heating the specimens to various temperatures and examining them at room temperature for evidence of a liquid phase. These results were checked later on by thermal arrest curves, especially to determine the exact position of the eutectic temperature line. For this purpose about 200 g of the boride were melted in a graphite crucible, in an arrangement similar to Fig. 1. Slow cooling was assured by very good

Jan 1, 1953

By AIME AIME

THE Board of Directors of the Institute has authorized the appointment of a committee to draw up rules of procedure under which awards can be made from time to time to petroleum engineers for outstanding contributions to the art of finding and producing oil and gas. These awards will 11e sponsored by the Petroleum Division and are the first recognition by any professional society of outstanding achievement in "oil mining." They will be in the form of either a gold medal, scholar- ship, or other suitable prize. The awards will be financed from the income of the Anthony F. Lucas Memorial Fund, which was started about fifteen years ago, shortly after' his death, by admirers of Captain Lucas.

Jan 1, 1936