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By Charles Will Wright

THE HIGHLY SPECIALIZED heavy air transport services to mining regions, such as exist in the New Guinea gold fields and in northern Canada, have been even more essential in the development of mines in Peru. Few nations have been con- fronted with greater natural obstacles to transport than has Peru, and without the plane it would have been impossible to get the machinery and supplies for the construction of power plants and mills to many of these interior mines, situated as they are over high mountain ranges, with muleback the principal means of transportation. As the mines within a district become important producers and warrant the expenditure, the mule trail is being replaced by automobile roads to connect with the railway stations and with the airports.

Jan 1, 1940

By S. R. Mitchell, M. Weissman, J. H. Brown

It has been demonstrated that for fine grinding operations, the energy input (E) and the product size modulus (k) are related by an equation of the form E = Ak1-n (1) where "A " and "n" are constants.(1) Also, it was suggested that "A" is determined by the comminuting device and that "n" depends primarily on the rock. It was the purpose of this investigation to study these constants by determining the form of an energy-size reduction relationship over an extreme range of energy inputs, and at the same time, to evaluate the minimum particle size produced during grinding. The comminution system consisted of a stainless steel laboratory ball mill in which quartz was ground at 60% solids for times ranging from 1 minute to 700 hours. The mill which measured 10" diameter by 12" long was loaded with about 60 pounds of balls ranging in diameter from 3/8" to 1-1/8" and was driven at 55 r.p.m. Quartz was selected for the tests because it is a brittle material for which size distribution data were expected to show a constant distribution coefficient regardless of product size.(1) This permitted specification of product size by a size modulus alone. The quantities measured were the time of grind (measure of energy input) and the specific surfaces of the products. Since no accurate method is available yet for determining particle size directly in the very fine size ranges specific surface data were used for this purpose. The relationship between these two quantities may be expressed as where Cis a constant which includes a shape factor, p is the specific gravity of the solid,_S is the specific surface and D is an equivalent particle diameter. For a material in which the distribution coefficient does not change with size the term (l/S) may be substituted for k in equation L if the proportionality constant "A" is changed correspondingly. This substitution was made in this work but in addition, screen analyses were made on several products to verify the equivalence of the two methods of size specification. EXPERIMENTAL DETAIL QUARTZ Quartz from two sources was tested. One series of tests was made on a clear, high purity crystalline quartz from Brazil and Arkansas, and another series was run on massive quartz fromNewHampshire. Grinding charges of the high purity material consisted of 2000 gram samples of -3-8 mesh particles, while the charges of the New Hampshire quartz were 500 gram samples of a -35+48 mesh screen fraction. The difference in the sizes of these two series of charges was not significant in view of the extreme size reduction accomplished, and the New Hampshire samples were smaller to permit ginding to finer sizes in shorter times than required for 2000 gram lots. SAMPLING AND ANALYSIS Separate charges were ground for all tests in which the grinding times were less than one hour and for all tests on New Hampshire quartz since these products were difficult to sample accurately without affecting the entire charge. During the long time grinding tests the mill was

Jan 1, 1961

By Reno H. Sales

The present-day application of geological knowledge to mine operations owes much to Survey activities. Early publications covering developed deposits at Comstock and Eureka in Nevada, and Leadville in Colorado, aroused great interest in mine geology among mine owners and operators. In later years personal contacts between Survey geologists, notably Lindgren, Spurr, Emmons, Weed, and Ransome, to name only a few, and mine managers, mine superintendents and mine foremen, brought directly home the importance of geological mapping and study in connection with mine operations. However, the Survey had recognized from the beginning that it was not practicable, either from the viewpoint of cost or policy, to supply direct help to the miner. The situation was met by many large mining companies through the organization of geological departments to deal with problems of geology which concerned not alone the every-day mine operation but also the life expectancy of the ore deposit. The mine owner therefore looked to the mine geologist to apply the "laws of ore deposition" in estimating the future of his mine. The examination of outside properties also became a duty of the company geologist where replacements were needed or where expansion of operations was contemplated. And finally, out of this situation there developed the independent consulting geologist, specializing in geological examinations of prospects, mines, and mining districts, whose duties included the highly important but often difficult task of appraising ore reserves and ore possibilities. Thus, while it may be considered by many that the work of the mine geologist overlaps that of the Survey geologist, their respective fields of endeavor are not in conflict. The appearance of the mine geologist has lessened in no manner the need of intensive field and research work by the Geological Survey and related organizations.

Jan 1, 1935

By L. A. Willey, William L. Fink

TWO of the aluminum-alloy systems previously studied—the aluminum-titanium and the aluminum-chromium—exhibit a peritectic reaction at the extreme aluminum end of the diagram. Preliminary work indicated that the aluminum-zirconium and certain other aluminum systems were similar in this respect. The present paper, the twentieth of a series from the Aluminum Research Laboratories, reports the results of a recent investigation of equilibrium relations in aluminum-zirconium alloys of high purity, which confirm the preliminary observations. Previous Investigations There has been only one investigation of the aluminum end of the aluminum-zirconium system. Sykesl prepared and studied alloys containing 0 to 70 per cent Zr. The lowering of the freezing point of aluminum by the addition of zirconium was found to be very little, if any (less than 2" C.). He placed the solid solubility of zirconium in aluminum at room temperature between 0.57 and 0.97 per cent. A few other investigators have attempted to determine the composition of the intermetallic compounds occurring in this system. Honigschmid2 obtained the compound ZrAla as a by-product during the preparation of ZrSi2. He made no attempt to prepare other aluminum-zirconium compounds. Weiss and Newmann3 prepared an alloy by heating aluminum with a double fluoride of potassium and zirconium. When this alloy was treated consecutively with caustic soda and hydrochloric acid, there was a residue, which contained approximately 72 per cent Zr and 28 per cent A1 (Zr3AI4). Marden and Rich4 prepared an alloy in the same way, treated it with caustic soda, and obtained a residue of silver-white crystals, which contained 70 per cent Zr and 30 per cent A1 (Zr3A14). Alloys Materials Used.—Electrolytically refined aluminum was employed for thc preparation of all alloys used in this investigation. The chemical

Jan 1, 1939

By James Norman, O. C. Ralston, John Dasher

Most mineral products are used in the finely divided state, but some are sold in larger sizes. Coal, gravel, metallurgical fluorspar, phosphate rock, hematite, chro-mite, and other products are sold in sizes coarser than can be treated by many mineral-dressing methods. Gravity separation of coarser sizes by log washing and jigging is probably as ancient as any process now in use. The performance of jigs on a feed with sufficient difference in density of the minerals is excellent, but many families of minerals are too similar in density to be separated effectively by this method. The use of heavy suspensions of fine solids to separate coarse coal from bone and slate has been in use for some years. This separation by sink-and-float was limited until recently to light minerals. Development of galena and ferrosilicon as suspension media, by Minerals Beneficia-tion, Inc., at Mascot, Tenn., Pitcher, Okla., and Crosby, Minn., under patents granted during and since 1938, has permitted excellent results to be obtained on minerals of very similar densities up to 3.3. This process has been put In the hands of American Cyanamid Co. for exploitation, and further research now in progress may increase the density of suspension obtainable so that separations at a density of 4.0 may be practicable before this is published. The Huntington-Heberlein dense-medium process, developed in England, is also being commercialized in the United States by Sink and Float Corporation. Du Pont has developed a sink-and-float separation using halogenated hydrocarbons as parting liquids; at this writing, the method is used commercially only on coal but has been successful in the pilot plant on many other minerals using tetrabrom-ethane at densities up to 2.95. While these processes were being developed to extend the range of separation by difference in density to the coarser sizes, the Bureau of Mines was engaged in developing a process that will extend the range of separation by difference in wettability up to 2-in. size. War work has pushed aside its further development indefinitely. The results are published here with the hope that some use may be suggested that will justify post-war development, and so that readers that may be able to make immediate use of the scheme may have the information. Earlier Work It has been known since the time of Herodotus (B.C. 484(?)-425) that water-repellent particles will adhere to sticky surfaces. That early historian reports the recovery of gold from the mud of a lake

Jan 1, 1943

By F. Louis Grammer

The iron industry has been so markedly the cynosure of all eyes, that a sense of weariness has overtaken many on-lookers, and a new wonder is desired. While the commercial phase of the iron industry has necessarily engrossed the public attention and probably is the more worthy of record, still the mechanical and metallurgical phases have recorded conspicuous advances and merit attention. In order to appreciate the present condition of blast-furnace practice, it is necessary before enumerating the advances made during the past decade to give a brief discussion of the tendencies in the methods of administration as well as the conditions governing supremacy, for these factors have modified the aims of the manager. It might also be well to apologize for a record of the advances made during such a short period as a decade, were it not that, for the individual, time is marked as much by the impressions recorded on the brain as by the jumps of the second hand of a watch. Furthermore, this article is written in order to carry out a project of the late Dr. Egleston, to have a record made each decade. I regret that the data collected by him, and forwarded to me, end with 1896, and therefore do not include the interesting results which followed the introduction of Mesabi ores. The perusal of the notes is melancholy reading, somewhat like the feelings we experience in going through a graveyard. It is a record made up of so many plants, which have ceased to be factors in the iron world, if they are not entirely moribund. Historically, they would be interesting, emphasizing as they do the abnormal and somewhat overestimated importance of furnace lines, taken without proper reference to volume of blast and nature of stock used. I regret, however, that the time at my disposal does not permit of this presentation.

Jan 1, 1905

By C. B. Foraker

THE Magma mine, of the Magma Copper Co., at Superior, Pinal County, Arizona, is 68 miles east of Phoenix and 21 miles west of Miami, Arizona, on highway U. S. 180. TEMPERATURES AND UNDERGROUND WATERS Surface Temperatures.-The average surface dry-bulb temperature at Superior is 72.4°; wet-bulb, 57.4°; with an indicated relative humidity of 38 per cent. The average yearly rainfall from 1921 to 1936, inclusive, was 18.74 in. The maximum condition of the atmosphere is in June, July and August, and the minimum is in January and February. The surface temperatures, of course, influence the temperatures of the down-cast shafts; however, the variation between winter and summer causes a difference of only 2° to 3° in the stopes and working places that are not close to the intake shafts. Average atmospheric conditions are shown in Fig. 1. Rock Temperatures.-Rock temperatures on the deeper levels of tile mine are as follows: LEVEL DEGREES LEVEL DEGREES 2000 109 3200 127 2250 112.5 3400 130 2550 116 3600 134 2800 120 3800 137 3000 124 4000 140 There appears to be no difference in rock temperature for any particu-lar horizon of the various formations or in the vein. Water encountered is always the same temperature as the rock from which it flows, and for this reason it is thought that the water is heated by the rock; not the rock by the water. The country rock apparently has been heated by the various intrusions, perhaps the vein itself, and has not yet had time to cool off. The geothermal gradient (Fig. 2) as indicated by the rock tem-peratures given above is 1 1/2 ° per 100 feet.

Jan 1, 1938

By Reno H. Sales

The present-day application of geological knowledge to mine operations owes much to Survey activities. Early publications covering developed deposits at Comstock and Eureka in Nevada, and Leadville in Colorado, aroused great interest in mine geology among mine owners and operators. In later years personal contacts between Survey geologists, notably Lindgren, Spurr, Emmons, Weed, and Ransome, to name only a few, and mine managers, mine superintendents and mine foremen, brought directly home the importance of geological mapping and study in connection with mine operations. However, the Survey had recognized from the beginning that it was not practicable, either from the viewpoint of cost or policy, to supply direct help to the miner. The situation was met by many large mining companies through the organization of geological departments to deal with problems of geology which concerned not alone the every-day mine operation but also the life expectancy of the ore deposit. The mine owner therefore looked to the mine geologist to apply the "laws of ore deposition" in estimating the future of his mine. The examination of outside properties also became a duty of the company geologist where replacements were needed or where expansion of operations was contemplated. And finally, out of this situation there developed the independent consulting geologist, specializing in geological examinations of prospects, mines, and mining districts, whose duties included the highly important but often difficult task of appraising ore reserves and ore possibilities. Thus, while it may be considered by many that the work of the mine geologist overlaps that of the Survey geologist, their respective fields of endeavor are not in conflict. The appearance of the mine geologist has lessened in no manner the need of intensive field and research work by the Geological Survey and related organizations.

Jan 1, 1935

By J. P. Dunlop

The fact is not.ablc though probably little known that thc Unitcd Statcls is the only nation obtaining and distributing through its Govcrn-ment burcaus any data pertaining to waste metals and drosses. Some foreign goverrlnlents do issuc reports relating to rnine or smelter production of prirrlar~ metals, but none gives in scope and detail t'he information published now by the U. S. Bureau of Mines and formerly by the U. S. Geological Survey; and this is despite the fact that the funds annually allotted for those purposes are insignificant in comparison with allotments for the preparation of data relating to other industries of like importance. The earliest data on the production of metals from secondary sources in the United States were contained in a press bulletin issued by the U. S. Geological Survey on Jan. 4, 1909. The information published was that for thc year 1907 obtained ant1 compiled by C. E. Siebenthal, who was one of the first to visualize the growing importance of the scrap-letal indust,ry. Thc Nationd Conscrvation Commission had emphasized its opinion that the known domestic supply of certain kinds of the morc important irietals was being rapidly marketed and that while there was no immediate cause for concern it was best to conserve such resources. Not only had there been a lanlentable lack of any data regarding the quantity of scrap inetals available or used but also gross carelessness and indifference in the segregation, collection, and effective use of scrap material. Siebenthal realized that even approximately correct statistics of recoveries from the more important base-metal scrap and drosses wcrc nearly as essential t,o both producers and consumers as the stat'istics of the output of primary metals. There were not then nor are there now sufficient funds for complete collection of data, nor was it considered the province of the Geological Survey t'o do more than determine approximately the recovery of secondary metals for use in supplementing those given for the primary metals. Undoubtedly the first bulletins issued did not give the full output, for it takes time to establish contacts for an inquiry covering so

By Harry H. Power

WHILE the attention of all engineering branches is focused today on changes and improvements in the several curricula, we are concerned here with the many questions arising in industry and college concerning the preparation for the petroleum engineering profession. The succession of problems confronting the petroleum engineer demands a degree of versatility not ordinarily encountered in other professions. As a consequence, the student cannot acquire mastery of all the several engineering branches represented in field practice, and as an alternative, he has learned to appreciate the value of thorough training in the basic or fundamental sciences as a preliminary foundation for professional work. While our attention is directed primarily to the training of engineers in educational institutions, it is necessary that the ultimate education of the professional engineer be kept in mind. It is apparent that his success as an engineer is limited not only by his educational and job experience, but by his native endowments: mentality, personality and health. The engineer's lack of job experiences often proves as much a handicap as the lack of adequate college training. If the final product proves to be satisfactory, both industry and technical institutions are to be congratulated. However, if the product is found wanting, the one most responsible should be apprehended. FITNESS FOR PROFESSION For the most part, students of engineering colleges have had their interests in applied science awakened at a relatively early age. Many of them entered college as a convenient means of acquiring a technical education, but undoubtedly would have had better prospects in a shorter program offered by institutions of noncollege grade. The activating motive of practical interest is also strong in students suitable for college training, but in many cases an intellectual interest must be awakened in order that it may survive graduation. Numerous engineers believe that this progressive process of selection and determination of career aims is one of the essential services rendered by the engineering colleges. Industrialists, who are more interested in quality than quantity of petroleum engineering graduates, have pointed out the good that should result if more emphasis were given to the work of eliminating the misfits. They also point out the protective measures that have been taken by other professions for the betterment of professional standards. Mention has been made of the beneficial results to be obtained by collective determination of the market for the products of engineering schools, particularly in that the students unsuited to the profession would have an opportunity to prepare themselves for employment more suited to their personalities and other qualifications. In the event that such a system of coordinated personnel direction is developed by the

Jan 1, 1941

By R. W. Heckel, H. P. Cheskis, A. Lawley, M. R. Pinnel

THERE are discrepancies reported in the literature regarding the micro and macro stress-strain behavior of metals and alloys. In particular, Young's modulus and micro yield measurements often show significant variations depending upon the techniques employed.'-" The purpose of this note is to correlate measurements made with four techniques and to indicate where some of these discrepancies might arise. Allied use of these techniques can provide a complete and consistent characterization of micro and macro stress-strain behavior (over the strain range of 10-9 to 10--2 in. in.-') from a minimum number of samples. Techniques. The techniques employed for measuring stress-strain behavior involved the use of a) linear differential transformers, b) SR-4 strain gages, c) longitudinal resonance waves, and d) X-ray diffraction. Specimen geometries and preparations are summarized in Table I for each technique. Differential Transformer and Strain Measurements. An Instron universal testing machine, modified with an alignment device, was used to apply the load via parallel-jaw grips. The signal from the load cell was applied to the Y scale of a Moseley X-Y recorder (sensitivity of 10 lb load per in. chart). The elongation was monitored simultaneously with strain gages mounted on three sides of the rectangular specimen, and with two linear variable differential transformers (LVDT) mounted at 90 deg to one another on faces that also contained the strain gages, Fig. 1. The signal from one of the LVDT's was applied to the X scale of the recorder (sensitivity 40 µ in. elongation per in. chart) in order to trace a continuous load-elonga-tion curve. Concurrently, the strain on the same face (i.e., the face monitored by the LVDT) was recorded by the corresponding strain gage. A stress-strain curve was plotted from the load cell-strain gage data and was compared to the stress-strain curve (converted from load-elongation) plotted from the continuous load cell-LVDT trace. Identical Table I. Description of Specimens Used in the Present Study Material Dimerisions Preparation Condition 99.99 pct A1 tensile 318 by 3/16 by 3 in. as cast ingot; cut annealed specimen on diamond wheel 2024 A1 tensile 318 by 3/20 by 31/2 in. vacuum hot annealed specimen pressed sheets; cut on diamond wheel 99.99 pct Al 3116 by 3/16 by 2 in. cut from tensile prestrained dynamic modulus specimen after 10"* in. specimen test per in. 2024 A1 dynamic 3/20 by 3/20 by 2 in. vacuum hot annealed modulus specimen pressed sheets; cut on diamond wheel 2024 A1 X-ray gage section 112 by vacuum hot annealed specimens 1/4by1/20in. pressed sheets; cut on diamond wheel

Jan 1, 1970

By G. C. Bateman

THE Workmen's Compensation Act of Ontario was passed in 1915 and Miners' Phthisis was added to the list of compensable industrial diseases in 1916. Under this provision of the Act only about two cases were compensated per year. In 1924, The Department of Public Health made a survey of miners in the four principal camps-Sudbury, Porcupine, Kirkland Lake and Cobalt--and the survey indicated that an alarming proportion of the men exposed to dust had silicosis in one or other of its several stages. A number of conferences were held between representatives of the Department of Mines, the Department of Public Health, the Compensation Board and the mine operators. The operators were advised that in the earliest stages of silicosis there was no physical disability and if men in that stage were removed from underground there would be little danger of permanent disability. They were further advised that if active steps were taken at once to compensate men that had some real disability and remove from the mines men in the early stages of silicosis, the first cost would be the greatest and thereafter their liability should decrease. As a result of this advice, and having at that time no reason to doubt the findings of the survey, the operators agreed to do all that was asked of them and cooperate with the Government in the steps believed necessary to meet the situation, and to provide compensation for the men affected. Amendments In 1926 Arrangements were made for the necessary amendments to the Mines Act and the Workmen's Compensation Act and these amendments were passed in 1926. The Amendment to the Mines Act provided that all underground employees must be the holders of certificates certifying that they were free from tuberculosis of the respiratory organs and further provided that the certificates must be renewed annually. The Government, however, at that time refused to adopt a form of certificate for applicants certifying as to their physical fitness for underground work. The Amendments to the Compensation Act defined both silicosis and

Jan 1, 1937

By Colin Fink

THE important developments within the past few years in electrochemistry, in particular in the electric furnace art, in electrometallurgy and in the methods of combatting corrosion are to be the subjects of my discussion. Fig.1 shows the rise of the electric steel furnace industry in this country and Canada. Many prophesied that the electric furnace was largely a war baby and that the sudden rise in the industry, due to the outbreak of the great war, would be fol-lowed by an equally sudden drop after the armistice. However, the curve shows that this, prophecy was not correct; the number of furnaces in operation in this country and Canada has continued to increase steadily, so that at the end of 1925 there were over 525 electric steel furnaces in successful operation. What does this mean? It has a big significance, namely that the en-tire steel industry has been revolutionized, to a certain extent, that we have been able to introduce certain alloys and steel products that we were unable to pro-duce before. On the table is. a sample of metallic chro-mium, analyzing more than 98 per cent chromium, made in the electric furnace. Before the war, the only commercial method of producing chromium was that by the Goldschmidt process. If chromium oxide is mixed with granulated aluminum, a violent reaction occurs, resulting in the production of metallic chro-mium. However, the price of chromium so made will always be above that of the raw material, which at the present time is about 27 cents a pound.. Furthermore, the chromium metal could only be turned out in small quantities, whereas in the electric furnace, large quan-tities, ton masses, can be produced today. The advent of chromium produced in the electric furnace has brought about an entire new phase in the alloy indus-try. The fuel-fired furnaces can turn out a low-carbon chromium steel that runs about 3 per cent chromium, whereas in the electric furnace, 60 per cent ferro-chromium is daily produced in large masses with almost entire elimination of carbon. It is difficult indeed to turn out ferrochrome very low in carbon. New steels are being produced today, for example the steel with which everyone has become familiar within the 'last few years, "stainless steel,". and which would have been impossible without the low-carbon ferrochrome. The elimination of most of the carbon made it possible to roll the chromium steels into thin sheets and manu-facture them into knife blades.

Jan 2, 1927

By H. Herbert Hughes

THE trend in modern building construction is definitely toward the use of weight-reducing materials. The basic advantage of lighter structural weight is obvious; reduction of dead load with retention of equivalent strength affords the possibility of increasing the live load, or if this is not desirable or necessary it makes feasible a reduction in size of structural steel members and corresponding savings in other phases of construction. Among the weight-reducing materials and practices rapidly gaining favor are the use of light-weight patented insulating board to replace back-up tile or units, particularly in home construction; introduction of aluminum alloys to replace steel for many purposes; manufacture of porous brick, the use of which materially reduces the weight of masonry walls and partitions; and the use of self-rising vesicular concrete, diatomite and sawdust tile, porous gypsum, or gypsum tile for nonload-bearing partitions and walls. Even building accessories are being designed to save weight and space; one of the most striking examples of this is improved radiator construction. Concrete technique is keeping pace with the rest of the industry. Burned shale aggregates now available in many sections of the country will make concrete weighing only 100 lb. per cubic foot, saving roughly 35 per cent. in weight and sacrificing none of the strength of a rock-sand mix. It may be more expensive, but actual experience has shown that the saving in dead load will effect a reduction in structural steel which in many instances will more than offset the increased cost of the aggregate. The vesicular nature of most light-weight aggregates gives the concrete especially good insulating, fireproofing and soundproofing properties; yet absorption is comparatively low. Strangely enough, however, the increased use of light-weight aggregates appears to have augmented the demand for ordinary aggregates in concrete construction rather than to have decreased it. Light-weight aggregates have widened the field for concrete structures and, since the producers do not attempt to recommend the use of their material except where weight or other special properties are important factors, impetus- has been given to sales of other aggregates.

Jan 1, 1931

By R. W. Raymond

THE question, what is the best proportion among weight, fall, and speed of stamps, is one which has not yet received thorough and systematic examination. In considering the economical application of stamping machinery, we meet, at the beginning, with serious difficulties in obtaining accurate data for comparison. The weight and fall of stamps vary as the shoes and dies wear out; and this may lead to a change of speed also. Moreover, defects in engines, boilers, or machinery for the transmission of power, may occasion serious losses, which cannot fairly be charged to the arrangements of the stamps proper. Again, the capacity of stamp-mills is directly dependent, in some degree, upon the nature and extent of discharge, fineness of screens, and other peculiarities of the battery. Finally, the hardness and tenacity of the rock crushed varies so much that comparisons between different localities cannot be implicitly trusted. The safest experiments are those made in the same mill, by changing first one and then another condition of working; but this is seldom possible for such conditions as weight and lift of stamps, and only within narrow limits for their speed. We may eliminate of friction, transmission, and generation of power, in the case of stamps, by measuring the power actually developed by their fall. Thus, the weight, multiplied into the fall in feet, and the number of drops per minute, gives us exactly the number of foot-pounds exerted by each stamp. Dividing by 33,000, the number of foot-pounds per minute in one-horse power, we have the horse-power per stamp, from which the effective power of the whole mill may be obtained. Dividing the amount of rock crushed daily by the effective horse-power, gives us the daily amount per horse-power ; and this is the best measure that can be obtained for the effectiveness of the stamps. A complete discussion of the subject would require us to determine the exact influence of the discharge, etc., and the exact resistance offered by different classes of rocks, for both of which points the data are wanting. Professor J. D. Hague, in the third volume of the United States Geological Exploration of the Fortieth Parallel, gives a valuable

By Edwin Ludlow

IN CONSIDERING the waste in the coal industry, which is the title of this discussion, we must entirely eliminate the anthracite region. The demand for anthracite has been constantly increasing and the mines have been able to run during this last year, while the bituminous field was idle for two-thirds of the time. It is on a 100 per cent. basis, which is the best answer to any waste in industry investigations. The anthracite region is also in a very much better position on account of its control by very large companies which realize that their resources are limited; they must husband these resources in every way and they are making the most careful study of methods of mining and preparation to avoid any possibility of waste. This is well known and realized by the managers of those companies. Even the fine slush which was formerly thrown away is now being stored in the hope that methods will be found by which it can be used economically, either in briquet or pulverized fuel in coking. This has been tried. The anthracite factor may be dismissed from the waste in industry discussion, except as it applies to the general public that burns anthracite; there is a tremen-dous waste of anthracite in the burning of it. Looking at the ash piles where anthracite is burned and seeing the amount of carbon that comes away with the ashes, one realizes that proper efficiency is not obtained in the burning of that coal. Even its higher cost does not seem to bring people to a realization of the necessity of conserving and burning properly the entire coal carbon content of what has cost so large a price. Many people feel that they want to have the coal as large as they can shovel into the furnace; they do not realize that the small coal makes just as many heat units and can be bought at half the price. Consequently, the demand is continually in excess of the probable pro-duction for the larger sizes of anthracite, while the smaller sizes, such as large buckwheat and pea, are a drug on the market and can be bought at nearly half the figure; and yet, if properly burned, these produce just as much heat and can be used with a much greater economy than the large egg and stove.

Jan 3, 1922

By Campbell Osborn

From the viewpoint of practical economic engineering the main value in studies of demand and supply lies in the information they give concerning the next movement of price. The title of this discussion is too comprehensive for detailed analysis and it will, therefore, be narrowed to the question of price measurement. The oil operator is interested primarily in net profits. Prices, costs and production determine them. Production is here used in its broadest sense. It includes refining and marketing. It is an operating problem. Prices and costs are economic considerations. Though costs are an important element of prices and profits, the subject is too large to be treated in a brief paper of this sort. In the long run, costs govern prices, but for the purpose of gaging prices in the immediate future the relationship of current demand and supply are more significant. Operating, expansion, retrenchment, sales and storage policies of oil companies are largely influenced by the feeling of executives concerning this relationship. The stockholders of companies whose executives are wrong may suffer. Investors who err in their judgment may likewise lose. On the other hand, oil companies and investors who appraise these factors correctly and move accordingly will profit. It is an important subject worthy of careful consideration. The author has been asked to discuss the subject for 1928. From the beginning of the year until the first of June, as illustrated by Fig. 1, over-supply prevailed in the face of restricted production, but from June to September, with record consumption, demand slightly exceeded supply and oil came out of storage in the United States as a whole. One of the main problems of the oil man is to decide whether this condition will continue and what the next movement of prices will be. Before he can do so he must have an understanding of the underlying conditions and of the facts that led to the present situation. With these facts in mind he is in a position to measure the effect of the present relationship of demand and supply on price and is afforded a perspective that may enable him to look ahead for a short period of time. The practical

Jan 1, 1929

By Arthur Dwight

WE NOT have to go so very far back, when measured in actual years, to what may be considered the beginning of the industrial era of the great West, the discovery of gold in California in 1848, just 74 years ago. By a strange coincidence, this event occurred within a few days of the signing of the treaty with Mexico which ceded California to the United States. Needless to describe the mighty wave of humanity that hurled itself toward the setting sun in response to that call. The single thought in every one's mind was gold. The gold as they found it in placers or ledges could be so easily worked, and the product was so readily transportable, and available immediately as money, that practically no attention was paid to deposits of the base metals, in the treatment of which cheap transportation was a paramount con-sideration; consequently little progress was made in anything but gold mining until after the Civil War. The next great step was accomplished when East and West were united by the successful construction of the Union Pacific Railroad from Omaha across the great plains and through the Rockies to meet the rails of the Central Pacific coming eastward across the Sierras. The industrial history of our great West really dates from the day when those two hands of steel were joined, on the shores of the Great Salt Lake at Prom-ontory Point,. May 10, 1869. That seems a long time ago when we think of the enormous changes that have been wrought since that day, and when we regard the rich empire that has sprung up in that western land. Into the new empire thus made accessible, by this first thread of steam transportation, flocked a new brood of adventurous spirits from the older communities of the East. This way walked Fate; and as she, went, flung far the line of destiny, That bound an untracked continent to brotherhood from sea to sea; That long gray trail of dream and hope, marked mile by mile with graves that keep On every barren hill and slope some stout heart lost in dreamless sleep. Patience and faith and fortitude were willed to it and justified; Stern, homely virtues, plain and rude, eternal as the sky and wide. Nor ever sea-king dared the sea in sterner mood than these who went Strong armed to wrest from Mystery their birthright, half a continent.

Jan 4, 1922

By William L. Fink, L. A. Willey

TWO of the aluminum-alloy systems previously studied—the aluminum-titanium and the aluminum-chromium—exhibit a peritectic reaction at the extreme aluminum end of the diagram. Preliminary work indicated that the aluminum-zirconium and certain other aluminum systems were similar in this respect. The present paper, the twentieth of a series from the Aluminum Research Laboratories, reports the results of a recent investigation of equilibrium relations in aluminum-zirconium alloys of high purity, which confirm the preliminary observations. Previous Investigations There has been only one investigation of the aluminum end of the aluminum-zirconium system. Sykesl prepared and studied alloys containing 0 to 70 per cent Zr. The lowering of the freezing point of aluminum by the addition of zirconium was found to be very little, if any (less than 2" C.). He placed the solid solubility of zirconium in aluminum at room temperature between 0.57 and 0.97 per cent. A few other investigators have attempted to determine the composition of the intermetallic compounds occurring in this system. Honigschmid2 obtained the compound ZrAla as a by-product during the preparation of ZrSi2. He made no attempt to prepare other aluminum-zirconium compounds. Weiss and Newmann3 prepared an alloy by heating aluminum with a double fluoride of potassium and zirconium. When this alloy was treated consecutively with caustic soda and hydrochloric acid, there was a residue, which contained approximately 72 per cent Zr and 28 per cent A1 (Zr3AI4). Marden and Rich4 prepared an alloy in the same way, treated it with caustic soda, and obtained a residue of silver-white crystals, which contained 70 per cent Zr and 30 per cent A1 (Zr3A14). Alloys Materials Used.—Electrolytically refined aluminum was employed for thc preparation of all alloys used in this investigation. The chemical

Jan 1, 1939

By McDowell Graves, Joseph Jensen, W. D. Goold, M. L. Gwin

During the present year the Santa Fe Springs field has proved to be the most important oil field under development in the United States. Its production will exceed that of any other field. Without it, production within the United States would have been almost in even balance with consumption. The field has forced to the fore and compelled, more than any other single factor, serious consideration of the need of conserving the gas resources of the State of California. It has also contributed much to the development of new drilling equipment and important features in petroleum engineering, and has required the development of a new cement for use in deep wells because of high temperatures. It is the only oil field in the country where wells 8000 ft. deep have become so common that they are no longer given special attention. The field covers a little less than 1400 acres of land. In it 196 producing deep-zone wells have already been drilled since August, 1928, and 224 wells are still drilling. More wells may be drilled. This indicates that probably more than 450 wells will be drilled in the present campaign. In hardly a year's time it has caused the outlay of nearly $50,000,000 for drilling, and within the year 1929 it will have returned practically an equal amount of revenue. In contrast to conditions during 1923, when this field was once before an important and disturbing factor, the California oil industry has not been forced to refinance to meet the situation presented by such a large production of oil. There has been practically no unit selling and no stock selling, nor any unnecessary development far beyond the limits of the field. Production is now about 275,000 bbl. per day and gives every promisc of remaining at this figure or increasing to nearly 300,000 bbl. Six months from now the field should still be capable of producing more than 200,000 bbl. per day. Obviously, the need for conserving gas that would be blown to the air, incident to the production of so large a volume of oil, represents a problem in conservation deserving of the most serious attention of the oil industry and of the State of California.

Jan 1, 1930