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By Arnold J. Rothstein, Raymond Kaufman

A large number of firms and institutions have evaluated possibilities of mining the manganese nodule source, beginning with a major effort in 1957-58. There have been as many as ten commercial firms actively engaged in major programs of engineering and development, including Deepsea Ventures/Tenneco, Hughes Tool Co., Kennecott Copper Corp. and Ocean Resources, Inc. Foreign firms active in the field are International Nickel CO., Sumitomo Group/MITI, AMR (a joint venture of three West German companies-Metallgesell- schaft AG, Preussag and Salzgitter AG), and Societe le Nickel (CNEXO). It is estimated that it will take from 11 to 19 years for the more successful ventures to reach operational levels. Investment Costs and Rates of Return Five different programs, all from public sources, have been studied to analyze dollar figures regarding investment costs and the possible return on these costs. All are based on a unit of production of a million tpy of dry nodules through the processing plant, which is considered the minimum likely capacity. The costs are not always comparable, and with some liberties, have been forced into two categories. The first covers mining and sea-related costs. The second will include the onshore processing and other costs such as administrative and distribution figures. The costs in all cases are for complete ventures extending from prospecting through mining, processing and distribution of several metals and other products derived from the nodules. All costs are joint product costs, making certain comparisons with land mining difficult.

Jan 4, 1974

By F. E. Turton

THE town of Rancagua, at the junction of the state and Braden Copper Co. railroads, is located 82 km south of Santiago, the capital of Chile. From Rancagua 70 km to the east, situated in the Andes at an elevation of 7000 ft, is the town of Sewell, the location of a millsite. Two and one half km east of Sewell by underground railroad at an elevation of 7500 to 10,000 ft is the Teniente orbody. The history of El Teniente dates from the eighteenth century, when according to legend a Spanish lieutenant, or teniente, a fugitive from justice, escaped to the Andes and camped at what afterwards became known as the Mineral El Teniente. This man reputedly discovered a vein of high grade copper ore. The first official records date from 1819, when some exploitation was begun, and continue until 1870. The orebody was large and of relatively low grade and was beyond the capabilities of the small groups attempting to operate it. No effort was made to erect a concentrator until William Braden became interested in the property. In 1901 Mr. Braden promoted the necessary capital for the first practical exploitation of the orebody. Barton Sewell and E. W. Nash, both of the

Jan 1, 1952

By Clarence R. Claghorn

Few facts relating to the Bernice anthracite coal-basin have been published in our Transactions, and little is known among engineers in general of the character and composition of the coal found in that basin.

Jan 1, 1889

By J. R. Thoenen

THE preper classification of mining methods has received the earnest study of many mining engineers and has resulted in much technical controversy, depending no doubt upon the point from which classification is viewed or the use to which it is put. So far as the writer is aware, the discussion has invariably centered around the classification of underground mining methods, and only superficial attention has been directed to surface methods. Volume 72, page 10, of the Institute Transactions, presents such a classification, sponsored by the Mining Methods Committee of the Institute. A similar classification by Prof. Hugh P. Nicholson appeared in Mining and Metallurgy in October, 1934. The two classifications are quite different in their treatment of underground methods but are identical in classifying surface methods, although Professor Nicholson does suggest possible further divisions for surface mining and admits that such subdivision is more difficult than appears at first. Surface subdivisions as given by these two authorities are as follows, showing that in spite of rearrangement the two classifications are identical: From his experience of many years in the study and operation of both underground and surface metal and nonmetallic mines, the writer does

Jan 1, 1942

By Perry Harrison

THE mixing of fine ores with fuel and burning under induced draft is called sintering in iron-ore practice and either sintering or roasting in copper and lead metallurgy. The first development of sintering was the Huntington-Heberlein process, in which fine sulfide ores mixed with fuel were charged into a pot and burned under the action of an upcast current of air introduced at the bottom of the pot. Modern development has resulted in two types of machine; the continuous Dwight-Lloyd machine, which consists of heat-resisting grates and a moving beltlike type of hearth constructed of metal, in which air is drawn downward through the bed, and the stationary Greenawalt batch process, which operates in the same manner as the Dwight-Lloyd except that the hearth is stationary. The recent rapid increase in the use of sintering has been the result of two great advances in metallurgical process-flotation and the treatment of flue dust. The Dwight-Lloyd machine is used in many plants for agglomerating flotation concentrates and at the same time reducing the sulfur content to furnace requirements and it has become standard practice to treat iron blast-furnace flue dust by either the Greenawalt or Dwight-Lloyd machine, so that it can be recharged into the furnace. The mining of low-grade magnetite iron deposits and their beneficiating by grinding and magnetic separation resulted in a fine concentrate extremely detrimental to blast-furnace practice. These concentrates are sintered and made into ideal material for blast-furnace use. Incidentally, coke savings of about 400 lb. per ton of pig are reported.

Jan 1, 1930

By Guy Crane

I. INTRODUCTION THE geology of the Tintic mining district, fully treated, would occupy an elaborate monograph. This less comprehensive paper is devoted primarily to the occurrence and origin of the orebodies of the district, while space is given to those phases of the general geology only which seem necessary to a proper setting of such a discussion. The first geological report on the Tintic district to be issued was that by Tower and Smith, published in 1899, in the form of a paper in Part III of the Nineteenth Annual Report of the U. S. Geological Survey, and also as Folio No. 65, Geologic Atlas of the United States. About four years ago a second investigation was begun by Waldemar Lindgren and G. F. Loughlin, of the U. S. Geological Survey. With the exception of a paper on the oxidized zinc ores of the Tintic district by Mr. Loughlin, the results of their work are still unpublished. The writer's acquaintance with the district began in the fall, of 1913, and has extended over a period of about two years.

Jan 10, 1915

By Charles Reed

WITH the increasing importance of clay in drilling operations which demand more precise and exacting control over its behavior, there has come the realization that most of our present methods of control over many of its important properties still represent more of an art than a science. Such a situation with respect to a material of such industrial significance is unfortunate, and naturally many investigations have been conducted to improve our knowledge. In general, these investigations have revealed the complex nature of clay behavior and while sometimes they may not have seemed to contribute directly to a solution of the field operator's problems they have been of inestimable importance in bringing to light the broad fundamental scientific principles upon which must be based any effective working theory correlating the known facts of clay behavior and predicting profitable new lines of attack for its improvement.

Jan 1, 1938

By J. R. Thoenen

THE preper classification of mining methods has received the earnest study of many mining engineers and has resulted in much technical controversy, depending no doubt upon the point from which classification is viewed or the use to which it is put. So far as the writer is aware, the discussion has invariably centered around the classification of underground mining methods, and only superficial attention has been directed to surface methods. Volume 72, page 10, of the Institute Transactions, presents such a classification, sponsored by the Mining Methods Committee of the Institute. A similar classification by Prof. Hugh P. Nicholson appeared in Mining and Metallurgy in October, 1934. The two classifications are quite different in their treatment of underground methods but are identical in classifying surface methods, although Professor Nicholson does suggest possible further divisions for surface mining and admits that such subdivision is more difficult than appears at first. Surface subdivisions as given by these two authorities are as follows, showing that in spite of rearrangement the two classifications are identical: From his experience of many years in the study and operation of both underground and surface metal and nonmetallic mines, the writer does

Jan 1, 1942

By W. Kane, M. Karmis

Roof and rib failures in underground coal mines are one of the major problems facing the industry today. In addition to safety considerations, the resulting economic impact of such failures is staggering. Uncovering and replacing buried and damaged equipment and clearing entries can account for a large expenditure in lost man-hours and machinery. Yet, because of the complex nature of its formation, geological variability, and structural characteristics, coal mine roof strata is one of the least controlable of all mine design parameters. This is especially true along the leading (southeastern) edge of the Appalachian coalfields where considerable faulting and movement has contributed to hazardous coal mining roof conditions. During this research, a detailed study of several mines, in the southern Appalachian coalfields, was undertaken to determine the most prominent geomechanical factors affecting roof stability and to evaluate their influence in promoting unstable ground conditions. In order to accomplish this task, the major geological and geomechanical features found to be detrimental to coal mine roof within the Appalachian basin were identified and mapped in four Virginia mines. Statistical processing by chi-square and regression analysis was used to determine the influence of geology, mine-layout, and support methods on roof stability. It was found that some easily determined parameters can be successfully used to predict potentially unstable areas. A simplified roof classification system was developed based on these geomechanical parameters, which can be used to assess the stability of a particular roof type. A roof rating index was also devised capable' of expressing the probability of a failure under a given set geomechanical condition.

Jan 1, 1984

By Robert Glass Cleland

THOUGH the rapid revival of the copper market in the early twenties solved the most serious of the company's immediate postwar difficulties, a much more fundamental, long-range problem still remained. Mining is not like farming: the earth does not bring forth a new crop of gold, silver, lead, zinc, oil, or copper at every harvest time. Metal taken from the ground does not spring up again from the old roots like perennial flowers in a garden, or find renewal in freshly sown seed. No ore body, whatever its size or richness, is too big or too rich to escape ultimate exhaustion. When the war closed in 1918, Phelps Dodge had been mining copper from Bisbee, Morenci, and Nacozari over periods varying in length from ten to nearly forty years. During much of that time, the company's production had run from fifty million to as high as two hundred million pounds a year. Even the greatest of mines had to respond in time to such a drain. High grade ore was already at a premium in Bisbee and Morenci. The Burro Mountain properties of New Mexico were a disappointment. Failing the acquisition of

Jan 1, 1952

By A. R. Denison

This field in 1933 continued as in 1932, although to a much less extent, to dominate the drilling and production situation throughout the oil business. The 2466 producers completed in this field during the year are 28 per cent of such wells completed in the United States. The 2556 completions reported in the five counties within which the East Texas field lies are 21 per cent of all such wells reported in the United States. It follows that with such a command of the development situation, every other factor with regard to this field has an important bearing on the entire oil business. As a consequence, the important developments in the East Texas field are the important developments of the year. Very little new productive territory was added to the already known limits of this enormous field. On the other hand, drilling has shown that with a few very minor exceptions this field is a continuous productive area, with a regular outline and no "dry spots" other than that of a single well surrounded by producing wells. Drilling was confined to the already proven limits of the field. This consisted essentially of more adequate coverage of leases by wells, the meeting of required offsets and the drilling of a large number of small tracts which developed from subdivision of larger leases due to court action and other causes. The allowable throughout the year was, with minor variable factors, on a per-well basis. With the steady decline in per-well allowable after May, every operator was faced with declining

Jan 1, 1934

By A. Eilers

ALTHOUGH the process to which I refer in this paper has been in successful operation for nearly five years, during which time it has been introduced, superseding all other processes having in view the same end, in almost every lead refinery in the country, no description of it, giving economical data, has ever appeared in print, nor has the process been known in its details to any considerable number of engineers beside those conducting it at their works. A discussion of this subject at the present time becomes especially interesting in view of a late publication in the Prussian ministerial organ for Mining and Metallurgy, by Dr. Wedding, in which the method of treating the zinc-silver-lead alloy by distillation, as finally settled upon at Tarnowitz, is very minutely and fully described. It is the more interesting, because in that article reference is made to the American method in an unfavorable light, while, at the same time, it is clear from the article itself, that the most important details of the process, besides the one that it is conducted in black-lead retorts, were not at all understood. In publishing herewith the details of our American method, one of my objects is to invite comparisons between our simple and direct process and the elaborate one at Tarnowitz. In extracting the silver from work-lead by means of zinc, it is always the intention, in this country, to obtain a zinc-crust so rich in silver that the rich lead resulting from subsequent distillation

Jan 1, 1875

By Henry Louis

The object of the present paper is to call attention briefly to a novel method of analyzing the action of the ordinary gravity stamp, which has not only thrown much light upon the exact motion of the stamp-head, but promises also to be of value in determining the efficiency of a new mill before setting it to its work of crushing, and in this respect should be of service to constructors of mining machinery as well as to mining engineers. The method was devised by Mr. D. B. Morison, and developed in connection with his experiments on the comparative crushing-effects of his patent high-speed stamp and the ordinary cam-stamp, which were carried out at the works of Messrs. L. Richardson & Sons, Engineers, Hartlepool, and on which he read a paper at Newcastle in 1897.* Mr. Morison's experiments were of a very exhaustive nature; and having been consulted by him during his investigations, I had frequent opportunities of examining the methods employed and the results obtained. Experiments were first made with an apparatus resembling the indicntor of a steam-engine, inasniuch as the drum revolved alternately backwards and forwards, thus producing a closed diagram. This form was not found satisfactory, and it was therefore altered so as to cause the drum to revolve continuously in one direction, thus giving a continuous or open diagram. The arrangement is shown in plan in Fig. 1; a collar, A, surrounds the stamp-stem loosely and works between the guides B, B, which constrain it to move in a vertical line only. Immediately above it and below it, a couple of collars are clamped to the stamp-stem, so that the latter, while free to revolve,

Jan 1, 1899

By S. G. Malghan, A. L. Mular

Size distribution and surface area measurements play an important role in the characterization of crushed and ground granular materials properties. This paper outlines sampling methods of granular materials followed by a detailed treatment of principles of size and surface area measurements of a wide range of sizes from crushers feed to ball-mill ground sub-micron particles. Currently available equipment for size distribution and surface area analysis is described and critically examined with respect to advantages, range of application and precautions in their use. Equipment for on- stream size analysis is also evaluated. Finally, a list of criteria are given for selection of particles size and surface area measuring devices for a particular application.

Jan 1, 1982

By A. J. Erickson, W. W. Atkinson

Concepts developed in a geologic data recording system at the Victoria, Nevada breccia pipe-skarn copper mine, are not fundamentally new, but represents expansion of earlier ideas. The basic philosophy is that a high quality geologic data base is necessary and should be complete, clear, standardized, neat, quantitative, and readily useable. It may be multi-colored or simply black and white. Graphic, descriptive and quantitative recording of data is essential. A format for core logging is presented and discussed, as well as a mu1tiple overlay system for recording data gathered in surface mapping.

Jan 1, 1984

Oscar Rohn was born in Jackson, Wis., June 27, 1870. He attended the University of Wisconsin and there gained from Professor Van Hise his inspiration for scientific effort and useful attainment. While a student at Wisconsin he was interested in athletics and was a member of the first eight-oared crew that Wisconsin sent to compete with Eastern crews at Poughkeepsie. He was an instructor in the gymnasium for several years. He received his B. S. in 1895 at Wisconsin, specializing in engineering and geology. 1229

Jan 1, 1924

By J. C. Norman

Jan 1, 1985

By Arthur S. Coffinberry, Ralph Hultgren

We have studied the gold-aluminum system by X-ray diffraction and by the microscope over the entire range of composition for temperatures between 300° and 500° C. Results obtained are shown in Fig. 1, combined with the work of Heycock and Neville1 at higher temperatures. The diagram differs in important details from that given by Hansen2 in his critical compilation of the literature of binary alloy systems. This work was undertaken both because of the intrinsic value of a knowledge of the phase diagram of this system and because of the need of theoretical metallurgy for precise and accurate data, particularly X-ray diffraction data. Systematic studies of equilibrium diagrams, particularly by Hume-Rothery,3 have shown regularities that yield a certain insight into the nature of alloying forces. It has been shown, for example, that solid solubility depends on the concentration of free electrons in the alloy, on the relative radii of solvent and solute atoms, on the forces of attraction between atoms, and on the relative stability of intermediate phases. The well-known Hume-Rothery rule states that the crystal structures and compositions of many intermediate phases depend on the electron-to-atom ratio. This has been confirmed and extended by wave mechanical calculations.4 A knowledge of the forces between atoms in alloys, even an imperfectly developed empirical one, should be a valuable guide in the preparation of technological alloys of desirable properties. Furthermore, such information is basic in such problems as rate of diffusion, age-hardening, phase transformations, and others. The most valuable data for this purpose are furnished by X-ray diffraction studies. Unfortunately, work has been

Jan 1, 1938

By C. A. Hartnagel, D. H. Newland

The market for Pennsylvania grade showed a drop both in demand and in prices, which reacted unfavorably on New York oil production, all of which comes under that classification. The output for the year in New York amounted to 5,045,200 bbl. The production in 1937 was 5,478,000 bbl., the largest in any year for the last half century or more. Falling prices, of course, affected new drilling. They declined from $2.20 a barrel, which was posted at the start, to $1.68 in the final months of 1938. With this came a reduction in the amount of oil that would be accepted by the refineries operating in the New York fields. Conditions therefore have combined to halt, at least temporarily, the growth of oil production in the state, which had experienced a steady gain for the last 15 years or more, the yield having risen from less than 1,000,000 bbl. to the round total of 5,500,000 bbl. in 1937. Practically all the oil now obtained is from old, developed fields. No new pools have been found in the last quarter of a century or more. The larger share comes from flooding the sands. Although there are many wells that still produce without the aid of the water drive, they are small and for the most part are pumped periodically. Of late, new drilling has been restricted mainly to that required to maintain existing flood projects. Because of the high initial cost and time required to put a flood into production, the depressed condition of the market has been a serious handicap financially, and, further, has been an unfavorable influence on the planning of operations to secure the maximum recovery of the oil. Unless market conditions improve, it is certain that the effects will be shown in the yield for some time to come. Gas Developments Drilling was active in the southwestern area, chiefly in Allegany and Steuben Counties, and some notable wells were brought in that tapped the Oriskany sandstone. Altogether 42 holes were put down in the two counties, of which 31 were listed as producers and 11 were dry. The new wells gave an initial daily flow of 239,000 M cu. ft. At the close of

Jan 1, 1939

By Herbert Johnson

DURING the past 10 or 12 years very little information has been made generally available concerning the commercial possibilities of separating materials by means of static electricity; and yet during that same period important improvements have been made in various branches of the science of electricity, which, when taken together, and applied to electro-static separation, have resulted in important improvements in that art as well. For example, much improvement has been made in high-voltage electrical equipment such as full-wave vacuum-tube rectification and improved mechanical rectification. Great strides have likewise been made in the development of insulators for high-voltage work, not only in the materials used but also in the design of the insulators themselves. Again, in another field, the development of air-conditioning equipment has improved the technique of controlling the surface condition, through drying or humidifying, of the various materials that are passed through the electrostatic separator. In many authoritative publications and textbooks, the electrostatic separation process is declared to require a balance far too sensitive for general commercial application. For example, one publication1 in the past has referred to an unfavorable effect on the process caused by varying atmospheric conditions such as humidity. Some2 have even gone so far as to state that sunlight and shadows may seriously affect the separating efficiency of the process. Such statements may have been true in the early development of the art, when the source of static elec-tricity was derived from a friction disk machine, such as the Wimshurst. The Blake Mosher equipment and the work of Huff in applying motor-generator sets, transformers and mechanical rectification overcame much of this kind of objection to the commercial application of the elec-trostatic separating process.

Jan 1, 1938