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By D Bruggemann, F Sereshki

There has been an ongoing research on coal and gas outburst for the past two decades at the School of Civil, Mining and Environmental Engineering, University of Wollongong. Research study began with a humble beginning, initially conducting basic laboratory studies on the coal and gas properties, progressing into the determination of gas content of coal by sorption technique and the effect of gas pressures on coal strength. The present laboratory facilities and research interests are extended to include the study of coal permeability and shrinkage properties and their effect of gas drainage characteristics with respect to gas type, and pressures. All the changes are examined with respect to changing in-site geological conditions of the coal deposit investigated. The aim is to provide a long-term support to industry in establishing a data bank for Australian coal deposit characteristics and properties.

Jan 1, 2005

By D. Stone, N. J. Aslin, W. Webb

In today's modem copper electro-refineries, increasingly higher average current densities are being employed. With these increases many refineries are approaching their limiting current density. The nearness of the average operating current density to the limiting current density has placed increasing emphasis on the need to maintain an even current distribution. This paper explores the importance of maintaining even current density and discusses the factors, processes and practices that are necessary to achieve and maintain high quality production at high operational intensity.

Jan 1, 2005

By Adriana Gómez

White dross is a result of the aluminum oxidation during its primary production and is mainly composed of metallic aluminum, Al2O3, with minor amounts of AlN and some other oxides. Because of the great variety of phases, the quantitative characterization is complicated. This work shows a quantitative method to determine the main phases of white aluminum drosses by means of X-ray diffraction (the Rietveld method). Nowadays the Rietveld method is maybe the most useful method for obtaining quantitative phases information in multicomponent mixtures, this method permits relatively quick quantitative phase analysis by fitting the calculated X-ray diffraction profile with the observed one. The analysis were done using powder with a grain size less than 45 µm; to obtain the suitable material size the aluminum dross was grounded by ten minutes, several times. The grounded material was screened, and the material smaller than 45 µm was taken to quantitative XRD analysis. Keywords: Rietveld Method, Characterization, Aluminum dross.

Jan 1, 2005

By Ronnie X. Gu, Xing Zheng, Gem-Yeu Ma

Due to implementation of the rotator construction method from which a smooth shaft was anticipated, a full-scale pile load test (Osterberg Method) was performed at Pier 14 Pile 9 of the main span of the New Benicia-Martinez Bridge to confirm the design parameters of the rock sockets. Two levels of load cells were fabricated in the reinforced cage of the rock socket. Each level consisted of three 670-mm Osterberg load cells with a total testing capacity of more than 50 MN in both directions. In an attempt to separate side friction and end beari ng, a 75 mm thick compressible Styrofoam material was placed at the bottom of the cage. The pile load test was carried out in four stages. The multi-level multi stage pile load test data was interpreted for casing friction, side friction for two rock strata, end bearing, and residual side shear values under repeated loading in opposite directions. The side friction from the casing in soils at Stage 2 is approximately 9 MN. The end bearing at the tip of the rock socket at Stage 3 was calculated to be approximately 17 MN at a displacement of about 75 mm. The residual side shear resistance for the 10 m 50% RQD rock strata was calculated to be 9 MN or approximately 50% of initial values, after being pushed 0.3 mm upward in Stage 1, 71 mm downward in Stage 2, then 55.5 mm upward again in Stage 3, and finally 105.3 mm downward in Stage 4. The test results surprising ly indicate that the side shear resistances from both low RQD intensely weathered rock and higher RQD slightly weathered competent rock are about the same at approximately 19 MN. This pile load test provides very critical information for confirming deep shaft design and analyses.

Jan 1, 2005

By R. J. Smyth

A Steel Compression Reinforcement Repair Technique (PetroSleevel) system has been developed that has the ability to repair pipeline defects such as stress corrosion cracking (SCC) without requiring welding to the operating pipeline. The Technology has been used to repair active cracking in ERW seam and cracking in the pipe body. All repairs were performed while the pipeline was in operation. This paper will discuss the engineering theory, testing performed to verify the engineering theory, and examples of actual sleeve installations.

Jan 1, 2005

By Thermo Electron, Tim Sennett

Summary ?SamStat Development ?SamStat Description ?Accuracy ?Availability ?Cost of ownership ?Capital ?Installation ?Operating/Maintenance ?Case Studies ?Modikwa ?Combined concentrate sampling ?Cerro Verde ?State of the art sampling & analysis ?Ok Tedi Final Tails ?brownfields installation ?Conclusion

Jan 1, 2005

By C. P. Kelley, T. J. McKeon

Several recent developments in fine screening technology have been implemented at the DuPont Starke, Florida plant allowing enhanced zircon recoveries while minimizing operator requirements and total operational costs. The total design concept came about through the efforts of engineers at Derrick Corporation (Buffalo, New York), DuPont Titanium Technologies (Starke, Florida) and Roche Mining (Carrara, Australia). The use of the Kelsey Jigs for zircon recoveries from the tailings stream requires two wet sizing functions in order to operate properly. The first wet sizing is required on the initial mineral slurry feed to the Kelsey Jig. This sizing is intended to protect the Kelsey Jigs internal screen basket from plugging with nearsize particles, thereby keeping production rates maximized. The second sizing function is intended to recover properly sized garnet ragging material, which inadvertently ends up in the tailings stream leaving the Kelsey Jig. The unique machine design developed by the three partners in this project incorporated both wet sizing functions (protection and garnet recovery) into a single patented high capacity wet screening machine fitted with patented screen surface technology. This screen surface technology allowed for high capacity slurry handling capabilities at separations as fine as 230 microns while experiencing no nearsize blinding and extremely long screen panel life. The high open area urethane screen surfaces utilized in the application typically last 20 to 30 times longer than stainless steel wire surfaces. The stacked machine design minimized total equipment requirements and screen footprint requirements, and reduced power consumption and overall installation costs.

Jan 1, 2005

By E. Snyders

Two alternative processes for the manufacturing of zircon products were investigated by the South African Nuclear Energy Corporation (Necsa). These were the synthesis of doped-zircon pigments from plasma dissociated zircon, and an upgrading process to convert an inferior grade of zircon into a superior opacifier for ceramic applications. A solid-state reaction process was used to produce doped-zircon pigments. The influence on the colour intensity of the pigments on a ceramic tile were compared for milled and un-milled plasma dissociated zircon (PDZ) material, prior to calcination. Pr-yellow and V-blue zircon pigments produced from PDZ with different degrees of dissociation, were also evaluated. The second zircon beneficiation process entails the upgrading of an inferior grade of zircon to a superior opacifier for ceramic applications. A calcining process in the presence of mineralizers was used to produce the product in a conventional muffle furnace. A pre-milled inferior grade zircon concentrate, with a relatively high iron and alumina content generally not suitable for high quality ceramic applications, was used in this study. The influence of the upgrading process on the opacifying properties of the zircon material was compared to that of commercially available prime grade zircon opacifier products currently being produced in South Africa. The influence of a calcining step in the presence of mineralizers with regard to the milling characteristics of the treated zircon material was also evaluated.

Jan 1, 2005

By John Ralston, Jinming Duan, David R. E. Snoswell, Daniel Fornasiero, Jingwu Yang

The colloidal stability of synthetic silica spheres with clean, methylated and dehydroxylated sur¬faces was studied at different concentrations of dissolved gas and KCl electrolyte at a fixed pH of 4.2. A classic stability ratio/electrolyte concentration analysis shows that hydrophobic, methy¬lated particles undergo faster rates of aggregation with increasing concentrations of dissolved carbon dioxide. Similar data for hydrophilic particles and dehydroxylated particles show no change as a function of dissolved carbon dioxide concentration. Zeta potential data behave simi¬larly, showing a strong influence of dissolved gas only for methylated particles. The results are interpreted in terms of DLVO theory, with the surface-to-surface interaction dominated by the presence of very small protruding bubbles. Direct evidence for the existence of these very small gas bubbles (or "nanobubbles") was obtained using tapping mode atomic force microscopy. Small bubbles do not form on smooth, hydrophilic, or dehydroxylated silicon oxide water sur¬faces immersed in aqueous solutions under known levels of gas supersaturation. Randomly dis¬tributed small bubbles were observed over the whole surface of observation on methylated surfaces of controlled roughness. Bubbles formed on rough, methylated surfaces were larger and less-densely distributed than those on a smooth surface of similar hydrophobicity. The process of bubble coalescence was observed as a function of time. The macroscopic contact angle, measured with respect to the aqueous or gas phase, is very different from the microscopic contact angle detected by TMAFM and appears to be due to the influence of line tension at the pinned three¬phase contact line. The latter has a value of -3 x 10-10 N and acts to stabilize the small bubbles, flattening them and thereby reducing the Laplace pressure.

Jan 1, 2005

By X Meng, W. A. Hustrulid, M. K. McCarter

Rock excavation in both surface and underground mining is largely accomplished using the drill and blast technique. At the perimeter of such excavations, cautious blasting procedures are often employed to minimize unwanted damage to the remaining rock. Of the several different techniques available, the use of explosive charges with a diameter smaller than the holes in which they are introduced (so-called decoupled charges) is the most common. In spite of the long and widespread use of the technique, a technically sound basis for relating the borehole wall pressure to the explosion pressure is still lacking. Such a relationship is required for optimal design

Jan 1, 2005

By H R. Phillips

Fresh air intake in an underground coal mine is of critical importance to the occupational health and safety of workers due to the dynamic, confined and dangerous nature of the mining environment. In most coal mines in South Africa, belt road is not separated from the fresh air intake to the sections. Intake air to coal production faces generally contains dust generated by conveyor belts, transfer points and travelling roads. Long roadways (up to a few kilometres in some of the existing mines) to the coal sections are involved in the ventilation circuits of individual sections. This leads to a progressive increase in the dust levels in the intake fresh air and thus high dust levels in the air delivered to the working sections downstream. In the process of reducing worker exposure to dust in the face area, attention to the monitoring of fresh intake air is generally given a low priority. This paper summarises the intake dust levels measured in selected South African underground coal mining sections over the past five years and its use as a parameter in assessing worker exposure to dust through a newly developed model called the Dust Exposure Level Index (DELI). Based on the measured data of the South African coal mines, the average section intake dust level was 0.78 mg/m3. Approximately 60 per cent of the samples collected for the study have exceeded the 0.5 mg/m3. The intake dust level measured at a longwall face was much higher than in the CM headings. The measured section intake dust levels furnish the South African coal mining industry with the latest depiction of the level of face area dust contamination due to the intake air. Further, this paper demonstrates the use of intake dust level as a parameter in estimating exposure levels of workers, as it clearly plays as a corner stone in effective control of exposure to face area respirable dust. It must be borne in mind that intake dust is a base level to the mine worker exposed to dust without carrying out any additional work in the section. If the intake air is seriously contaminated by airborne respirable dust; then the exposure of the workforce in the section will constantly be elevated by that background dust level.

Jan 1, 2005

By David Hake, David Salisbury

The Drainage Services Department (DSD) of the Hong Kong SAR Government commissioned the design and construction of the West Kowloon Drainage Improvement, Stage 2, Phase 2, Kai Tak Transfer Scheme (KTTS) project in 2000 to relieve potential flooding in Mong Kok caused by the insufficient capacity of the existing storm water drainage system. The KTTS involves construction of a 1.5km,4.4m drainage tunnel and a 450m long box culvert, running from Waterloo Road near Hereford Road to the existing Kai Tak Nullah in San Po Kong. This paper describes the design and construction of; the bored tunnel through both hard rock and soft ground using a slurry Tunnel Boring Machine (TBM), six associated access shafts, a connection structure at Waterloo Road and the box culvert connecting the bored tunnel to the outfall at Kai Tak nullah. Details will be provided on the contractor’s alternative designs adopted during the contract including the use of fibre reinforced shotcrete as one-pass temporary and permanent support for three of the shafts and modifications to the Engineer’s design for the box culvert structure.

Jan 1, 2005

By S. V. Rungan

Since 1994, South Africa has been the subject of international attention, especially in regard to its transformation initiatives, which aim to redress the post-apartheid imbalances. Mining, as a major employer and one of the major industries in South Africa, has been the focus of the government?s Black Economic Empowerment initiative with the introduction of the Minerals and Petroleum Resources Development Act and the Broad?Based Socio?Economic Empowerment Charter for the South African Mining Industry. The historical background to South Africa?s transformation and the role of the mining industry are pivotal to an appreciation of certain aspects of the Minerals and Petroleum Resources Development Act and the Broad?Based Socio?Economic Empowerment Charter for the South African Mining Industry. The issues around Black Economic Empowerment and the enabling of a smooth transition to the South African mining industry of the future are explored in this paper.

Jan 1, 2005

By N. E. Yasitli

There is a considerable amount of lignite reserve in the form of thick seams in Turkey. It is rather complicated to predict the characteristics of strata response to mining operation in thick seams. However, a comprehensive evaluation of ground behaviour is a prerequisite for maintaining an efficient production, especially when top coal winning by means of caving behind the face is applied. A comprehensive modelling of deformations and induced stresses is vital for the selection of optimum production strategy. In this study, numerical modelling and analysis of a longwall panel at Omerler underground coalmine have been carried out by using the software called FLAC3D developed based on the finite difference technique. Firstly, a 3-D numerical model of the M3 panel has been prepared. Secondly, induced stresses formed around the longwall face have been determined as a function of face advance where the face was located at the bottom of thick coal-seam. Results obtained from modelling studies have revealed that the front abutment vertical stress was maximum at 7 metres in front of the face and magnitude of front abutment stress was found to increase up to a distance of 200 metres away from the face start line. As the face was further advanced after 200 m from the face start line, there was not any significant change in the characteristics of front abutment stresses. Results of numerical analysis of the panel were in good agreement with in situ observations.

Jan 1, 2005

By Baruch Grinbaum, Edwin Bwalya, Robert Minango, Deogratias Bukunkwe

Solvent extraction of Cu from acidic leach, using an oxime extractant, e.g. LIX 984 or Acorga is a well known and established process. As the process advances, Cu is extracted to the solvent and is replaced by H+ in the aqueous phase. At high acidity the distribution coefficient of Cu between the solvent and the aqueous phase decreases, and eventually relatively high concentration of Cu remains in the raffinate, regardless of the number of equilibrium stages. In many processes this phenomenon is immaterial, as the raffinate returns to the leaching and no copper is lost. But when the copper raffinate is used for processing of additional metals, minimal concentration of Cu in the raffinate is essential for an effective process. The recommended process includes three steps: 1. SX-1: Standard extraction of Cu with oxime. The resulting raffinate contains about 6-8 g/L Cu and 50 g/L H2SO4. 2. SX-N: Extraction of most of the acid into an amine-based solvent, and stripping it with a base, e.g. aqueous ammonia, caustic, Na2CO3 etc. The extraction removes no metals, but decreases the concentration of acid from 50 to 10 g/L. 3. SX-2: Extraction of the neutralized solution once more with oxime, to remove the residual copper. Such a process enables one to get down to 100-150 ppm Cu in the final raffinate. This process was developed and tested in the R&D facility in Chambishi Metals plc, by a joint team of Chambishi & Bateman, using Cognis LIX 984N and real solutions from the plant. In the laboratory scale, the equilibrium isotherms for SX-1, SX-2 and the neutralization were developed. Computer simulation of the results showed that the optimal configuration is two stages for both extraction and stripping for SX-1. For SX-2 2-3 stages of extraction and two stages of stripping are needed. The stripping stages may be common to both SX-1 and SX-2. The neutralization of SX1 raffinate was tested both by conventional precipitation with lime and by extraction with Alamine based solvent extraction and stripping with a solution of 10% NaOH. For the SX-N only one stage was needed for both the extraction and stripping. The bench scale pilot plant was run for both SX-1 & SX-2. The results were very similar to the simulated ones, and the configuration of 2E2S for SX-1 and 3E=2S for SX-2 delivered the required raffinate with less than 150 ppm Cu.

Jan 1, 2005

By N. Vayenas, G. Yuriy

"The combination of a predictive reliability assessment model and discrete-event simulation can be an effective methodology to study the impact of equipment failures on the capacity of production systems in mines. In our case, a predictive reliability assessment model using genetic algorithms is combined with a discrete-event simulation model to analyze mine equipment systems.Discrete-event simulation involves modelling of real-life systems based on variables and events that occur or change at distinct points in time. The Simul8 simulation software, by Visual Thinking, is used in this research. It is a two-dimensional (2D), discrete-event simulation/ animation software tool for creating realistic depictions of manufacturing and materials handling systems.The simulation model developed for the purpose of this research represents a typical two-level, sub-level stoping section of an underground mine in the Sudbury region in Ontario, Canada. This 2D model was created to assess the impact of equipment failures to a mine’s production throughput. In more detail, using mean time between failures (MTBF) data of scooptrams derived from a reliability assessment model based on genetic algorithms, LHD failures are incorporated into the simulation model. These failures cause production interruptions to the development cycle and consequently loss of hauling capacity.Another purpose of this research work is to demonstrate how low-cost simulation tools such as Simul8 can be successfully applied to model underground hard rock mining operations. The research discussed in this paper is carried out by the Laurentian University Mining Automation Laboratory (LUMAL)."

Jan 1, 2005

By J Rubio

This work presents design features of an innovative in-line mixing helical (coiled) reactor for flocculation and flotation as a solid-liquid separation process for suspended particles (including liquid droplets). The device has been named flocs generator reactor (FGR), a compact system whereby the flocculation of particles is assisted by the kinetic energy transfer from the hydraulic flow through the reactor and/or by the injection of microbubbles (30 - 70 ¦m). The flow mixing presented a plug flow regime with a low dispersion degree, promoting the required hydrodynamic conditions to disperse the polymer flocculant (cationic polyacrylamide) and to generate æstrongÆ flocs of Fe(OH)3 or clays (as colloidal model systems) with aggregation using an anionic polymer, Al2(SO4)3 and poly aluminium chloride (PAC), and oil emulsions destabilisation with a high molecular weight cationic polymer. The solid-liquid separation of the flocs was then achieved either by settling or by flotation with microbubbles. This paper discusses advances in this new in-line flocculation-rapid flotation device to remove æaerated aggregatesÆ, aggregates with entrained and entrapped bubbles. Studies were carried out with different models of FGRs (varying the length:volume ratio) and process efficiency (mainly kinetics) evaluated as a function of polymer concentration and some operating parameters, namely, feed flow-rate, air:solids ratio and residence time. Results showed that the aerated flocs are readily floated with rising rates in the order of 120 mh-1, values higher than those obtained for the settling of the non-aerated flocs (18 - 24 mh-1). The FGR requires short residence times and generates dense, well structured flocs (with a mass fractal dimension, dF of about three) which withstand high shear forces. Mechanisms involved appear to include small bubble formation and their rapid occlusion (entrapment) within flocs, nucleation of bubbles at floc/water interfaces, polymer coiling as a result of æsalting outÆ effects at the aqueous/air interface and plug flow type of mixing (flocculation). Successful examples of emulsified oil and solids removal from water are shown and because in all cases high efficiencies were obtained (>90 per cent removal). Due to the high process efficiency and high loading capacity shown, the FGR appears to have good potential as an in-line flotation-separator device in applications requiring high rate solid-liquid or liquid-liquid separations.

Jan 1, 2005

By Norman O. Lotter, André R. Laplante

"The pursuit of concentrator surveying for purposes of metal accounting or process optimization has not yet connected with the well-published realm of geostatistics. The reality of lognormality in time has seldom been discussed. One publication by Krige, 1962, examined such effects for a gold concentrator in South Africa, towards an information system that would provide feedback to the mining and surveying teams on grade control of ore mined.During present studies which are designing and testing a new survey model, called statistical benchmark surveying, it was found that the distributions of feed, concentrate and tailings bear significant residual signs of the parent lognormality in space. The multiple hosting of paymetals in different mineral species complicates the understanding of these distributions. These features have to be recognized and treated in order to perform appropriate quality control on the diagnostic sampling performed in the pursuit of statistical benchmark surveying.It is shown in this paper that the above two features can actually be used to advantage in the diagnosis of continuous periods of operations data ahead of such surveying, including the estimation of recoverable paymetals in flotation tailings from a graphical method.INTRODUCTIONAssessment of Concentrator PerformanceMilling and flotation, sometimes accompanied by gravity separation, are well-established unit processes, which have traditionally been used to treat ore that has been mined. This is because these processes liberate, then separate, the valuable minerals, which contain paymetals, from host gangue. This is often done by a combination of crushing and grinding processes, or autogenous grinding, to liberate the paymetal minerals, followed by gravity separation and/or flotation, to separate these valuable minerals into a concentrate, or several concentrates. These concentrate(s) have a lower bulk than the parent ore from which they are derived. Further, they contain a high percentage of the valuable minerals. Accordingly, they are more economically treated in subsequent beneficiation processes than the ore from which they were produced."

Jan 1, 2005

Iron formation-hosted iron ore deposits account for the majority of current world iron ore production and consist of three classes: unenriched primary iron formation with typically 25 to 45 wt per cent Fe; martite-goethite ore formed by supergene processes, with abundant hydrous iron oxides containing 60 to 63 wt per cent Fe; and high-grade hematite ores thought to be of hypogene or metamorphic origin overprinted by subsequent supergene enrichment with 60 to 68 wt per cent Fe.Individual iron ore deposits range from a few millions of tonnes to over two billion tonnes at >64 wt per cent Fe, although most are within the range of 200 to 500 Mt. In the Hamersley Province of Western Australia, martite-goethite ores are largely developed in the Marra Mamba Iron Formation, although high (>0.08 per cent P) phosphorous mineralisation is also well developed in the stratigraphically higher Brockman Iron Formation. Whilst the vast majority of high-grade microplaty hematite ore is best developed in the Brockman Iron Formation, this paper provides the first textural evidence of locally significant microplaty hematite mineralisation in the Nammuldi Member of the Marra Mamba Iron Formation, in the Chichester Ranges at the Christmas Creek, Cloud Break and Mount Nicholas prospects. Petrographic studies have identified a high-grade Fe texture composed of nanometre scale plates of hematite in mineralised sections of primary microplaty hematite deposits in the Pilbara and elsewhere, well below the normal depth of weathering or dehydration. The population of nanometre to micrometre scale hematite plates is interpreted to represent various stages of nucleation, crystallisation and progressive growth of hematite from the primary ore-forming fluid in areas that were once iron-rich carbonates or silicates in the BIF.

Jan 1, 2005

By T. A. Utigard

To improve recoveries of Ni, Cu and Co in the Inco flash furnace, a new operating concept was investigated. By adding sufficient coke to form a supernatant coke layer, a reducing barrier would form allowing for improved reduction of descending oxidized sulfide mineral particles formed in the flame. The objective of this investigation was to study the kinetic mechanism and efficiency of the coke layer to produce a sulfur deficient matte. The mechanism and rate of carbon reduction of each of the phases formed in the flash flame, i.e. sulfides and oxysulfides were investigated by means of X-ray visualization tests. Graphite-slag reduction was also conducted for comparison purposes. In the case of slag, poor wettability and the formation of a gas film on the surface of the carbon reductant are often blamed for limiting the reaction surface area that ultimately results in poor reaction kinetics. The X-ray visualization tests confirmed that matte and oxysulfide wet coke better than slag and that the rates of reduction of matte and oxysulfide are faster than that of slag.

Jan 1, 2005