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By Jiajun Geand, Shuli Wang, Baodong Pan, Xueqi Cui, Guangwei Zhang, Jipeng Sun

Gravity-fed three-product dense medium cyclone(GTDMC)is usually used as the main coal washing equipment in coking coal preparation plant. It can produce three products with a low density suspension at the same time. Raw coal and dense medium are fed separately into the cyclone. Only the qualified low-density medium suspension is pumped into the cyclone while the raw coal is fed into the first-stage 1200mm cyclone axially at the top end by gravity. The 1200mm cyclone with a cylindrical form is for low-density separation. The clean coal with light density and slower-settling velocity moves directly towards the low pressure zone along the axis and is carried through the vortex-finder to the overflow. Only the heavy products pass through the "separating zones" to the wall of 1200mm cyclone and then migrate into the series-connected second-stage 850mm cyclone through the tangential outlet. The medium suspension from the first-stage cyclone is thickened and contains more magnetite coarse particles. The second-stage cyclone typically consists of a cylindrical section and conical part. These are all favorable for the second-stage cyclone to separate at a high density. Production practices show that the clean coal and the gangue rarely mixed in the middling, the lower limit of the separation is 0.2 mm, the Organic Efficiency and the Ecart probable of the first stage is 98.30% and 0.026 kg/L respectively.

Jan 1, 2014

By Wei Qu, Yongsheng Song, Xingyu Liu, Wenjuan Li, Shuang Liu, Guiying Zhou, Bowei Chen

The Pb,Sb,Zn multi-metal sulphide ore is processed in sequence of beneficiation of jamesonite, sphalerite . Due to relative large amount of collector (xanthate), activator (CuSO4) and regulator (lime) during different flotation stage, the flotation wastewater from sphalerite beneficiation stage can’t be directly recycled to the first lead flotation stage. In this paper, the flotation wastewater from sphalerite beneficiation stage was treated by Ozone and BAC technology, results showed that when the influent concentation of COD and copper ion were 850 mg/L, 10.48mg/L respectively, the Ozone and BAC technology could effectively treat such type of water. In the treated wastewater, the COD is 60mg/L, copper ion concentration is 0.023mg/L, pH is 7.0, which satisfy the need of Pb,Sb-Zn preferential floatation separation process. After recycle of the treated wastewater to Pb,Sb floatation circuit, qualified Pb,Sb concentrate and Zn concentrate were obtained.

Jan 1, 2014

By Klaus M. Hahn, Kurt Aasly, Jutta Lennartz, Hermann Wotruba, Ben Snook, Przemyslaw B. Kowalczuk, Rolf Arne Kleiv

"Seafloor massive sulphide (SMS) deposits have been identified as important marine metal resources for the future. However, literature on mineral processing of SMS is currently limited, and to date, no research has been published on processing of SMS from either active or inactive hydrothermal vent fields on the Arctic Mid-Ocean Ridge. In this paper, individual SMS rock samples from the Loki’s Castle area were tested. Chalcopyrite, isocubanite and sphalerite represented the main copper and zinc bearing minerals in the SMS samples, whereas the gangue consisted of barite and silica. Based on the X-ray transmission response (XRT), i.e. differences in the atomic number of elements in tested samples, and using portable XRF (PXRF) values of elemental composition, individual particles were classified as a either product (low barium / high to low silicon / high copper and zinc) or waste (high barium / high silicon / low copper and zinc). The classification was based on the elemental composition of the samples with the cut-off grade equal to 0.5% for copper. It was shown that the XRT discrimination analysis correlated well with elemental (PXRF) data classification. The results clearly indicate that X-ray transmission sensor-based sorting can be used a useful technique for preconcentration of SMS rock samples. INTRODUCTION Due to different compositions of investigated samples, sensor-based sorting is a useful technique for preconcentration of different materials. The aim of using sensor-based sorting is to upgrade an ore by reducing the quantity of overall waste material reporting to the next processing stage. This can be achieved by eliminating (reducing) the waste fraction. By applying sensor-based sorting, the energy consumption for particle comminution as well as the required process water and reagents can be decreased. The total volume of the waste rejection leads to a proportional reduction in the total energy costs (Lessard et al., 2014, 2016)."

Jan 1, 2018

By Irena Grigorova, Tashka Ignatova, Ivan Nishkov, Andrian Valchev

"Feldspars used by ceramic and glass industries as fluxing agents are mainly obtained from high quality feldspar deposits. The demand for feldspar as raw material for industrial applications especially in ceramic manufactures is continuously increasing. However, due to the depletion of those deposits, the research activities related to the recovery of feldspar from the lower grade feldspar deposits and feldspar bearing rocks such as pegmatite, granite, arkosic sandstone and syenite have been intensified in the last two decade. In Bulgaria, the main deposit of arkosic sandstone is located in the area of Shumen town, NE Bulgaria. In Srednya deposit arkosic sandstones are found in Upper Cretaceous sediments (Santonian). In this formation, there are two major industrial minerals - feldspar and quartz. They may be of economic value and possibly suitable for commercial uses. The main purpose of the present study was to investigate the beneficiation and upgrading processes of Srednya deposit arkosic sandstones. In a laboratory scale it was studied the possibility to obtain the feldspar concentrate and quartz sand from arkosic sandstones. Particle size distribution, chemical and mineralogical compositions of quartz-feldspar sands were determined. The bench-scale tests using the KOALIN AD laboratory experimental facilities were conducted. Many processing techniques were tested: disintegration, washing, sizing, carbonate flotation and feldspar flotation. The experimental results show that there are possibilities to obtain the silica sand with low content of Fe2O3 - below 0.02 % and potassium feldspar with content of K2O > 14 %. A new technology for recovery of feldspar and silica sand from arkosic sandstone was developed."

Jan 1, 2014

By S. V. Balikov

A close association of fine gold with pyrite and arsenopyrite is observed at many gold ore deposits. Gold forms and gold distribution in sulfides of different deposits were studied. A comprehensive method including optical spectrum analysis, X-ray diffraction analysis, high-temperature X-ray diffraction analysis, scanning electron microscopy and X-ray microanalysis was used for the de-tailed investigation of the defectiveness of the structure of pyrites from different deposits. It was shown that gold content in pyrites varied from 1.5 g/t to 100 g/t compared with 30 g/t to 230 g/t in arsenopyrites. The nature and arrangement of inner inclusions of foreign minerals in pyrites as well as occurrence of fractures and macro- and microdefects were examined. Iron, sulfur and arsenic contents in all pyrite samples were determined. Chemical composition of the detected inclusions was defined. Parameters of submicroscopic structure of pyrite were estimated using X-ray Fourier line shape analysis. Estimation of real structure characteristics with calculation of submicroscopic D-blocks and root-mean-square lattice deformation 2()evalues was performed. Defectiveness of the pyrite structure can be defined by the following parameters: K?1 and K?2 reflection resolution and its intensity within high Bragg angles; S content to Fe content ratio; the arsenic content and the local variation in its concentration within the pyrite grain; the size of submicroscopic blocks and the crystal lattice disturbance value. The performed analysis showed some relationships between these parameters and refractoriness of the pyrite concentrates. It was observed that at S/Fe ratio close to or higher than stoichiometry and at a low arsenic content (less than one per cent) pyrite concentrates were not refractory. The analysis results showed that concentrates of the Beryozovskaya gold plant (0.02~0.07 As%) and concentrates of the Kommunarovskaya gold plant (less than 0.05 As%) as well as some pyrites from the Sukhoi Log gold deposit had the same characteristics. It was found that average arsenic content did not excess 0.2 per cent. Arsenic distribution within the grain of all these pyrites was uniform. At S/Fe ratio lower than or close to stoichiometry and at high arsenic content (more than one per cent) and significant variation in its distribution within a pyrite grain the pyrite concentrates are refractory. Such pyrites are typical for the Sukhoi Log, the Bakyrchik and the Mardzhanbulak gold deposits. Direct correlation between arsenic and gold contents, in particular, in fine grains of pyrite was observed by many researches. This correlation was explained by impregnation of arsenopyrite which normally contains more gold than arsenic pyrites. The analyses results showed that no arsenopyrite impregnation was found: arsenic distribution within the grain was uniform but its concentration varied greatly. Such pyrite concentrates are more refractory. This paper presents the results of analyses of sulfides to determine the amenability of the associated gold recovery by hydro- and pyrometallurgy.

Jan 1, 2014

By A. Javadi

"Our recent studies revealed that the sulfide minerals in contact with water during grinding produced hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) where the amount of H2O2 production by the minerals found to be in the order of pyrite > chalcopyrite > sphalerite > galena. The H2O2 effect on the oxidation of pulp components and its influence on the concentrate grade and recovery in flotation have been studied and the results have been presented and discussed in this paper. Studies have also been carried out to build correlation between percentage of pyrite in the concentrate, grinding conditions and concentration of OH•/H2O2 in the pulp and as well of controlling the formation of these species through known chemical means for depressing the generation of the oxidant. Flotation tests using a complex sulfide ore with the same reagent scheme that is being used at Bama concentrator in Iran but with the addition i) Na2S reductant and ii) inorganic (EDTA) and organic (TETA) surface modifiers, during grinding stage have been performed to judge the beneficial or detrimental role of H2O2 on the selective flotation of sulfides. The results demonstrate that the selectivity of metal sulfides against pyrite increases with increasing generation of H2O2 in the pulp liquid.INTRODUCTIONOur recent studies have illustrated the formation of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) by metal-sulphides during grinding in the presence and absence of oxygen (Javadi Nooshabadi & Hanumantha Rao, 2013a; Javadi Nooshabadi & Hanumantha Rao, 2013b; Javadi Nooshabadi & Hanumantha Rao, 2013c; Javadi Nooshabadi & Hanumantha Rao, 2014). In the absence of oxygen, it was found that pyrite surface is catalytically active and able to breakdown water molecules to form OH• free radical and thereby deriving oxygen in the formation of H2O2 from water molecules. The in-situ formation of H2O2 and its influence on sulphide flotation has not been addressed yet. The presence of strong H2O2 oxidant in the pulp liquid and its selective oxidation of pyrite would be beneficial in depressing pyrite flotation. Therefore, it is important to build correlation between percentage of pyrite in the concentrate, grinding conditions and concentration of OH•/H2O2 in the pulp as well as to study possible ways of flexibly controlling the formation of these species through known chemical means for depressing the generation of the oxidant."

Jan 1, 2018

By Tiago de Souza, Caroline Gonçalves, Carlos Eduardo de Castro, Everton Dias

The Miraí plant from Votorantim Metais, has two screening stages to the bauxite classification after scrubbagem. The final product has hold the larger size of 0,84 millimeters (20 mesh). There are two sieves Haver & Boecker (model R-TE 3658 x 10972), which have four modules with cut size sieves of 10 mesh (1.70 millimeters) and ¼ inch (6.35 millimeters) on the primary screen, and 20 mesh (0.84 mm) on the secondary screen, all made of polyurethane. The actual configuration was established according to the empirical tests realized that aimed the increase material load on the secondary screening. However, having in mind the screening process improvement and use the fractions smaller than 0,84 mm, which have significant levels of Alumina and low reactive silica, was proposed a new test of change the sieves opening for 6 mesh in the primary screen and 28 mesh for the secondary sieve. The objective of this work was measure the ore alterations on the particle size distribution on the screening steps, increasing the plant weight and ratio recovery before and after the test.

Jan 1, 2014

By T. N. Alexandrova

Results of mineralogical-technological research of carbonaceous rocks of Kimkansky precious metal occurrence are presented, on their basis new typemorphic natural and technological microelement associations were revealed using mathematical statistics methods. Keywords: carbonaceous rocks, processing, microelements, flotation, statistical criteria

Sep 1, 2012

By Robert Dunne

A review of the current ?state of the art? of refractory gold treatment will be provided. This will include a global perspective of the refractory processes that are being practiced, where they are and some discussion on why the processes were selected. Some discussion on the challenges that face the refractory gold industry will also be provided.

Sep 1, 2012

By ?. S. Yusupov, V. P. Isupov, N. Z. Lyakhov, A. G. Vladimirov, S. A. Kondratiev

"Considering the shortage of lithium reserves, the desirability has been shown of studying the possibility of processing into spodumene concentrates the concentration tailings and low-grade ore reserves at Transbaikalian Mining and Processing Project (ZabGOK). The mineral and chemical composition and the particle size distribution of the mineral feed, separability and recoverability of spodumene have been studied, forming the basis for the development of a concentration process and flowsheet for the studied mineral resource. Prospects have been established for impact ore grinding in a disintegrator, the efficiency of mechanochemical processes has been shown in the separation of quartz and feldspar and the recovery of lithium from concentrates.INTRODUCTION Lithium is widely used in various industries - nuclear power engineering, defense technology, power generation, ceramics, special-purpose glass and other technologies. The increasing demand for lithium and its compounds (lithium carbonate and hydroxide) for use in the manufacture of high-tech products (lithium-based materials for chemical sources of electric power and electrochemical energy) explains the need for establishing a sustainable raw material base (Mohr et al. 2012; Moores, 2007). The main sources of lithium are spodumene pegmatites (Vladimirov et al. 2012; Garret, 2004), brines (salars), and hydromineral materials (Garret, 2004; Zeng and Liu, 2009; Kotsupalo and Ryabtsev, 2008). However, in view of the absence in Russia of extractable hydromineral resources of lithium, the practical significance of spodumene ores remains decisive. Russia controls some of the world’s largest reserves of rare-metal pegmatites holding over 8 million tons of Li2O: approximately 7 million tons on the Kola peninsula and 1 million tons in the Sayan mountains. The main lithium mineral in pegmatites is spodumene LiAlSi2O6 containing 8.1% Li2O. It can be efficiently recovered by gravitational concentration and flotation. However, most of the deposits are located in remote areas and none is currently developed. In this connection, special research is focused on technogenic raw materials, which are increasingly seen as a solution to the resource base problem (Chanturia, 2008, Kurkov and Kotova, 2007)."

Jan 1, 2018

By Mohana Rao Andavarapu

Sandur Schist Belt of Karnataka Craton constitutes a hub of iron ore mining activity. The iron ore deposits of the region are closely associated with Banded Hematite Quartzite (BHQ), Shale, phyllites, & Graywackes. The gradual depletion of high-grade iron ores due to extensive utilization has necessitated the exploitation of low-grade iron ore including BHQ, which are available abundantly in different parts of India. In the present investigation, BHQ samples from Kammaturu mines of Sandur schist belt was studied to assess the possibility of upgrading the iron content to the maximum possible extent, so that it may find the better use in iron and steel industries. The sample collected from the study area analyzing 39.76% Fe, 39.8% SiO2, 0.66% Al2O3, and 1.92% LOI was subjected to beneficiation studies. The mineralogical studies reveals that the samples are predominately consists of hematite as an iron mineral and quartz as gangue mineral. Liberation studies and chemical analysis were carried out prior to the beneficiation process, which is flotation. Cationic Reverse flotation studies were carried out and discussed by varying different process variables such as feed size, depressant, collector cum frother dosage & pH. The results obtained are encouraging with an appreciable improvement in the iron content up to 62.8% Fe with Fe recovery of 50.43%. The concentrate obtained from the flotation can be used for pellet making process.

Sep 1, 2012

As a leading global company in the mining sector, we are committed to sustainable development. To this end, we invest in the responsible, integrated management of economic, environmental and social issues. Vale?s objective is for our businesses to produce local, regional and global prosperity, enabling the construction of a positive legacy throughout the lifecycle of our activities. This covers everything from talking with stakeholders and preventing failures to complying with legislation, paying constant attention to environmental issues and respecting ethics in business. Keywords: sustainable development

Sep 1, 2012

By Kwan Ho Kim

In this study, free fall tests are conducted with the objective of understanding the breakage properties of waste concrete for the guide of the direction of the better comminution process. Waste concrete of 75mm×53mm is tested at various drop heights with or without heat pretreatment. Test results indicate that a block of waste concrete does not break by free fall, but eventually breaks by repeated free falls. The number of free falls required for complete separation of large aggregates from the cement mortar considerably reduced when the samples were heated at 400?. Therefore, a great energy saving can be obtained when heating the waste concrete prior to crushing. The energy saving was found to be dependent on the height of free fall but in all cases, was still large enough to offset the additional energy required for heating. Also, it was found that the heat pre-treatment gives an additional advantage in that it produced cleaner recycled aggregates. This may result from easier detachment of cement mortar from the aggregates due to weakening of bonding forces by heating. By analyzing the size distribution of the crushed product, a free-fall breakage model is developed using the particle breakage ratio and the breakage pattern. The developed model can be used to predict and to analyze waste concrete processing circuit.

Jan 1, 2014

By B. K. Mohapatra

Small manganese ore bodies in south Odisha, India occurs both as stratiform and stratabound ore bodies. These two ore bodies show contrasting mineralogical, petrographical and chemical characteristics. Stratiform type of Mn-ores consists of manganese, iron and silicate- phases in approximately same proportion. In contrast, stratabound ore bodies contain a high proportion of manganese oxides, silicates and phosphorus phases. Phosphorus is found within apatite in the stratabound ore bodies while in the stratiform ore it occurs as an adsorbed state with iron phase (goethite). Both ore bodies are low-grade (17-23% Mn) therefore do not have a market value. However, the stratabound ores are enriched in phosphorus (P2O5: >1%) compared to the stratiform ores. Both the ore types were processed through gravity, magnetic and roast reduction followed by magnetic separation techniques. The strata bound ore could be upgraded to 33% Mn from a feed of 23% by combination of dry and wet magnetic separation methods. But the phosphorus content also suits up (P2O5: 1.2%) in the processed product making it unsuitable for further use. The stratiform ores do not respond to either gravity or magnetic separation because of close association of manganese with iron phases. However, this could be beneficiated through roast reduction followed by magnetic separation. An ore with 17% Mn content could be upgraded to 40% Mn with a 42% yield and 78% recovery. The goethite, having phosphorus, converts to magnetite and is retained within the magnetic fraction, thereby reducing the concentration of phosphorus in the non-magnetic fraction, which becomes the product. This report demonstrates the influence of ore petrology in determining the up-gradational potential of manganese ore in the southern Odisha, India. Keywords: manganese ore, physical beneficiation, phosphorus rich ore

Sep 1, 2012

By Andrzej Wieniewski, Cezary Regula, Bozena Skorupska, Krystian Cichy

"In this paper, experiences from Polish non-ferrous metals ores enrichment plants in the copper and blende concentrates quality improvement are discussed. The blende concentrate being produced in ZGH Boleslaw S.A., with Zn content of about 54,5% is characterized by the relatively high magnesium content reaching a level of 1% resulting from the dolomite presence, while for the zinc production by electrowinning a concentrate in which magnesium content should not exceed 0,3% is required. The implemented new technology for the quality improvement of blende concentrate is based on the leaching of zinc concentrate with sulfuric acid aimed at dissolving of the contained dolomite, and then flotation of the leached concentrate. It allows to obtain a concentrate with magnesium content below 0,1% at the simultaneously increased zinc content to about 57,5%. In the paper, laboratory tests results on the development of optimal flotation flowsheet for the gypsum removal and the industrial tests results concerning the process optimization of this flotation are discussed. In turn, the copper concentrate being produced in Polish copper ore enrichment plants KGHM PM S.A., is characterized by the increased organic carbon content - above 8%. It creates problems with the smelting of this concentrate because of difficulties with the heat removal derived from the combustion of organic carbon in the flash smelting process. The implementation of segregating flotation to the industrial practice allows the effective production of two concentrates with the differentiated chemical compositions - a concentrate with increased copper content and reduced organic carbon content for the flash smelting process, and a concentrate with lower copper content and increased organic carbon content for the shaft smelting process. In the paper, conditions of the segregating flotation and the achieved results are described."

Jan 1, 2014

By John A. Herbst

Professor A.M. Gaudin and his students at MIT were dedicated to understanding the fundamentals of mineral processing and as a consequence were constantly searching for better quantatative descriptions of size reduction, liberation and mineral separations. I have had the good fortune of meeting Professor Gaudin and working with many the modeling pioneers who followed him. I have observed first hand the refinement of mineral processing models as they increased in realisticness moving up the steps of the pyramid (see figure below) from pure empiricism to the current pinacle of physics based models. During this journey our industry benefited significanbtly as model prediction errors were reduced from ± 20% to ± 1%. Unit operation and plant simulations improved in accuracy and speed of calculations.

Sep 1, 2012

By M. Narasimha

The flow in a hydrocyclone classifier is highly turbulent complex nature of multi-phase structure, which has led designers to rely on empirical mathematical models for predicting the performance. A number of classifying cyclone models have been developed and successfully used in mineral comminution circuit simulators over the past four decades (Plitt, 1976 and Nageswararao, 1978). However, most of the mathematical models currently available to describe hydrocyclone classifier performance are based on single average mineral density component behavior. In industrial comminution circuits, the feed to the cyclone composed of a mixture of particles of varying degrees of liberation and sizes. The behavior of multi-component particles in a hydrocyclone is poorly understood and unaccounted for in most of the mathematical model equations available in the literature. There is evidence from a number of experimental data sets indicating the significant influence of the multi-component particles on measured cyclone performance. A concept for modeling the performance of hydrocyclones based on multi-component behavior is proposed in this paper. A set of semi-empirical model equations for cut-size, sharpness of separation are presented and the corresponding model parameters evaluated from the measured data are given.

Sep 1, 2012

By Mohammad Noaparast, Hamed Haghi

"In this research work, it was attempted to reduce the iron contents (Fe2O3) in relatively low grade silica sample which was obtained from Shenin silica mine, using magnetic separation. The prepared sample contained 93.75%SiO2, 0.44%Fe2O3, 2.78%Al2O3, and 0.08%TiO2 and the Fe2O3 had to be reduced to less than 0.08%. Mineralogical studies and XRD analysis indicated the presence of Hematite, Pyrite, and Goethite as the major iron impurity phases. Mineralogical studies of polished and thin sections demonstrated that the degree of freedom of silica is more than 80% in -300+212 ?m size fraction. After primary stages including crushing, milling, scrubbing and de-sliming, various methods such as low intensity magnetic separation (LIMS), high gradient magnetic separation (WHGMS) and dry high intensity magnetic separation (DHIMS) were applied to find out that which process would be appropriate for the elimination of iron impurities from this sample. Different experiments were carried out on the product of wet rod mill and scrubber. However the magnetic field intensity of WHGMS was increased down to 2Tesla, and there was not any acceptable result in reduction of Fe2O3 content lower than 0.08%. Thereafter the product of wet rod mill and scrubber were dried and reported to DHIMS. In these experiments, maximum magnetic field intensity was 1.4Tesla. In this case very significant results were achieved, and Fe2O3 content of final product were reduced to less than 0.05% which meets glass manufacturing standards."

Jan 1, 2014

By Atul Kumar Bhatnagar

TATA STEEL is the pioneer in coal beneficiation in India. The first coal beneficiation plant was set up in 1951 at West Bokaro and subsequently in 1953 in Jharia. Over the years more beneficiation capacity was added by setting up new coal washeries in both West Bokaro and Jharia, the coal divisions of Tata Steel. currently the beneficiation capacity available is 8.5 mtp aappx Being a captive supplier supplying the coking coal as per demands of our steel works is challenging in the sense that the intent is to leverage the captive raw material advantage and select the best strategy for maximizing value up to steel making. The beneficiation plants were designed to produce clean coal up to 17% ash. With the demand of increasing productivity at the blast furnace the clean coal ash was lowered. subsequently the processes were audited and efficiency improved. The next challenge was to improve the throughputs in the existing plants to maximize the clean coal production. The upgradation was designed in house and implemented to upgrade the plant from nameplate capacity of 2.1 mtpa to 4.5 mtpa while the yearly production targets were also achieved. The presentation will detail the different phases of improvements, process followed, challenges faced, and the results as achieved in the process. Keywords: coal beneficiation, India, coal washeries, beneficiation plants XXVI INTERNATIONAL

Sep 1, 2012

By V. K. Gupta

Selection of mill size for reducing a feed material of a given size to the desired product size is generally based on the specific energy estimate obtained from Bond test. Over the last thirty years or so, an attempt has been made to develop a more accurate and powerful alternative approach based on the characterization of the particle breakage kinetics and material transport through the mill over a range of operating conditions of interest and correlating the degree of size reduction achieved with the net specific energy input to the mill. Particle breakage kinetics are described in terms of the specific grinding rate and breakage distribution parameters for the individual size fractions. Precise estimates of these parameters and the net energy input to the test ball mill (a laboratory or pilot scale mill) are important for development of desired energy-size correlations. In this context, three tasks are important: (a) preparation of the feed charge, (b) design of batch grinding experiments and (c) computational technique used for estimation of the breakage rate and breakage distribution parameters. This paper highlights several aspects of these three tasks that have been overlooked by researchers working in this field, and describes a more appropriate approach for estimation of model parameters and specific energy input. Several examples are included based on the data available in the literature and those generated in our laboratories to illustrate important points.

Sep 1, 2012