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By Oliver M. W. Sprague

THIS gold problem is full of complications and can hardly be handled adequately or comprehensively in any short period of time. Perhaps I might begin by mentioning a few aspects of the subject about which I suppose there will be no disagreement. The first of these is that we already have a stock of monetary gold in the United States far in excess of what is needed to support any desirable increase in the present volume of currency and credit. The second is that this already superabundant gold stock is certain to be considerably enlarged during the course of the war, and presumably during the months of readjustment following its conclusion. Some billions of additional gold, we may reasonably presume, will come into the country during these next few years, thus increasing the aggregate monetary gold stock from the present eighteen billions to perhaps twenty- two or even twenty-five billion dollars.

Jan 1, 1940

By Philip D. Wilson

AS thin most important and vital component of an airplane aluminum hay rapidly become the heart and tome- of the war program. Its production ham increased amt will continue to increase, in comparison with its pre-war position further than that of any of lie other important critical metals except magnesium. Compared with the 1939 production of tons of primary ingot coming from four plants, all owned by the Aluminum Company of America the 1942 figures are more than three timer as large. Including, recoverable scrap and contracted ingot from Canada the 191,, supply of aluminum for the United States will be over siren times dial of 1939- A substantial part of this increase has been achieved during the past year as total production in 1941 was only some 307,500 tons. During 1942 six great new ingot plants sponsored and owned by the Government have come into production and three others are nearing completion.

Jan 1, 1943

By Clyde E. Williams

MODERN steelmaking has gradually evolved from an inefficient small-scale operation, utilizing tiny units, to a highly efficient one utilizing large units almost completely mechanized. The leading position of the United States in the steel industry is due to the possession of easily assembled high-grade raw materials and large-scale highly developed plants. Modern integrated steel operation is largely one of material handling. Mining and transportation of iron ore, coal, and fluxes, coking the coal in by-product ovens, smelting the ore with coke and limestone in blast furnaces, converting the resulting pig iron into steel in the Bessemer, or in the open hearth when supplemented with scrap, and fabricating the resulting steel ingots in the shapes of commerce all are done on a huge scale, mostly by machinery, most of the labor being employed either in operating the machine or keeping it in repair. At the same time the quality and uniformity of the product have been greatly increased by the development of scientific knowledge and operating skills. Thus, the steel industry in this country is highly developed both mechanically and technically.

Jan 1, 1942

By W. R. Ingalls

THE paramount subject of interest and concern at the present time is the readjustment in economic conditions following the cataclysmic disturbance produced by the war and the misconceptions leading to an orgy of extravagance that prevailed during two years following the armistice he, time is too short for me to undertake to review the nature and extent of the upheavals occurring between August, 1914, and October, 1920. Bulky volumes will be written about them. . But I shall have to refer to some of the results in order to outline a prognosis. It is the future, not the past;' that is of most interest to us. Let me be so bold as to say, without further preface, that I am not optimistic as to the near future. .We shall, indeed, have revivals in trade, but they will be delusive if their nature be not 'understood. We shall build hopes and expectations upon political maneuvers and events, only to find in the end that they were folly. In the meanwhile fundamental economic influences will continue to exert their steady and irresistible pressure. The new administratiow at Washington has no magic wand with which to kindle the fires in our idle steel furnaces, or create a million new houses for the people; nor can the premiers of Europe put into motion the spindles of the cotton and woolen mills, or by any incantations compel the people of the Orient to buy goods. The people of the Orient, and of, Europe, and of the two Americas are in the grip of the same economic forces. The readjustment has proceeded further in some parts of the world than in others. In the United States I do not think we, have gone more than over the threshold. I shall tell you why 1 think thus, but in telling you I shall be limited, in view of the immensity of the subject, to a series of bald statements, without much elucidation.

Jan 1, 1921

By S. Frederick Ravitz

IN most applied sciences there are two distinct methods of carrying out research and development work. One of these, the theoretical, attempts to solve problems that may arise and to predict facts of practical importance by the application of the various laws of science, the other, the experimental method, attempts to each the 'same goal by obtaining data and trying out various processes in the laboratory. Since individuals frequently find themselves better adapted for one or the other type of procedure, it is natural that -two groups should 'arise, both working toward the sane objective but with somewhat different points of view, although many in each group are thoroughly competent in both fields. Metallurgy, in particular, offers an excellent opportunity for a comparison of the two methods.

Jan 1, 1935

By Emery R. Hayhurst

SILICOSIS has been described in a report of the American Public Health Association as a disease due to breathing air containing silica, characterized anatomically by generalized fibrotic changes and the development of miliary nodulations in both lungs, and clinically by shortness of breath, decreased chest expansion, lessened capacity for work, absence of fever, increased susceptibility to tuberculosis (some or all of which symptoms may be present), and by characteristic X-ray findings. ... The disease is divided arbitrarily into first, second, and third stages for convenience of description and possible compensation purposes. At least two distinct types of silicosis are recognized, acute and chronic. The acute form was reported as early as 1713, when a British patent for grinding flint by wet methods was granted because the dry powdered material "proved very destructive to mankind, so much that any person, ever so healthful, working in that business cannot possibly survive over two years."

Jan 1, 1936

By AIME AIME

DURING my senior year at college a professor said to his class that a student who failed to obtain a passing grade in that certain subject could not graduate with his class and that his diploma would be withheld until the failure had been removed. In that way for four years a diploma had been made to appear to us as the objective in attending college. We grew up to think that a diploma was the means of providing employment; consequently, a diploma could not be jeopardized and, heeding the professor's remarks, we resolved to put forth special efforts and make good. During one of our class periods this same professor digressed briefly from his prepared lecture in metallurgy and advised the boys to join a national technical society. He spoke with earnestness and sincerity. After class we students discussed those remarks. We concluded that the professor had not convinced us. We were already members of technical societies at school and saw no need of joining another. In fact, even up to that moment a society had never indicated to any of us that joining it had any relation to landing a job, and we were fully aware that joining another society meant paying out more money, for fees and dues, which money we then needed to buy food, clothes, and perhaps a new slide rule. Furthermore, we knew that joining a society was not part of the curriculum and, therefore, the diploma could not be withheld if we did not follow the advice. Our conclusion was that we would not join but would concentrate on our work that assured getting our diplomas.

Jan 1, 1936

By S. S. Arentz

An organized safety program has reduced accidents at Pioche because effort is first devoted to arousing and maintaining interest in safety, followed by training in accident prevention, assigning responsibility for the detection and removal of safety hazards, and finally, by keeping score through an adequate system of records. A health program is intergrated with the safety program.

Jan 1, 1950

By F. O. Garrabrant

Power is furnished to the Climax Molybdenum Co. by the Public Service Co. of Colorado over two 100,000-volt lines to a bank of three 3333-kva. transformers 100/13.8 kv. These transformers are so designed that with the addition of forced cooling their capacity may be increased 331/3 Per cent at 12,000-ft. altitude. Under present conditions, these transformers are operated at 140 per cent of their rating with forced air cooling. On the secondary side of this bank there is a 15-kv., 1200-amp. Westinghouse oil circuit breaker provided with automatic reclosing relays allowing three successive short circuits before lockout. From this breaker 13.8-kv. power is transmitted to a central switching station (Fig. I) where all circuits radiate to the different operations of the property. Each circuit is protected by a 23-kv., 600-amp. oil circuit breaker with by-pass and isolating disconnecting switches.

Jan 1, 1947

By Arthur Mitchell

POSSIBLY in no other of the non-ferrous mining districts of this country has the use and develop-ment of mechanical loaders been carried to such an extent as in the "lead belt" of Southeast Missouri. It has become apparent to the four mining companies in the district that it is imperative to apply satisfactory mechanical methods to the chief remaining stage of the entire operations-mining, milling, smelting and refining-in which manual labor is still largely used to handle material in process. With increasing wages and with the reduction of the metal divisor by the extension of mining into lower-grade orebodies, the shoveling cost per ton of lead produced has become relatively so large that in an effort to reduce it there is ample justification for considerable capital expenditure. Hand shovelers load about 18 tons of ore per shift and the average grade is less than five per cent. lead. Further, the ore is relatively heavy, about 21 cu. ft. to the ton when broken, and is often so coarse and so closely compacted after shooting that it requires much more block-holing, sledging, and muscular effort to shovel than, for example, does the cherty and more granular ore of the Joplin district or the finer ore in the headings of a drift mine. No mining company desires to pay for mere back muscles if it be economically feasible to avoid it, and labor saving machinery should be susceptible of operation by older employees, who are no longer capable of the more strenuous manual occupations.

Jan 4, 1923

By G. L. Oldright

THE metallurgist is familiar with the rapid development of concentration -by flotation and smelting in the reverberatory in recent years, brought 'about chiefly by the exhaustion of' bodies of .rich, coarse, direct smelting ore. Geologically speaking, in many porphyry-copper districts, the richer contact or replace let deposits surrounding 'the main ore-forming igneous intrusion have been exhausted, and it is necessary to beneficiate the copper minerals disseminated throughout the mass of the intrusion itself. The organization of great companies to treat such low- grade ores on a large scale and the practices resulting from the necessity for an economic method of treatment 'are among the most prominent metallurgical developments of the past decade. It is interesting to note the effect of the present trend of practice on the inter-relationship of the concentrator and smelter, on the constituents of the smelter charge, and on smelting in general.

Jan 1, 1925

The industrial might of the Bowen Basin is primarily the result of Utah Development Co.'s work- which has opened up the Blackwater, Goonyella, Peak Downs, and Saraji mines; built the Hay Point port; and is now developing the Norwich Park mine.

Jan 1, 1977

By V. V. J. Sarma

Interpretation of earth resistivity data involves not only obtaining depth to interfaces but also determining the nature of formations from their resistivity characteristics. Moore's method of interpretation envisages obtaining depths to the interfaces alone. A simple method of estimating the true resistivity values of formations by applying Hummel's formula of average resistivities is proposed. The method would increase the interpretative value of Moore's method as originally proposed. For most of the earth resistivity measurements, the four-electrode configuration developed by Wennerl is employed. In principal, the method consists of energizing (Current I) the ground through two outer electrodes and measuring the resultant potential (v) between the two inner electrodes. The configuration is such that the separation (a) between any two successive electrodes is equal. The apparent resistivity (pa) for such a configuration is given by 2p- a (V/I). By increasing the electrode separation (pa vs a) curves are obtained. Ideally, a homogeneous isotropic formation underground has a characteristic resistivity. However, the field conditions do not present such ideal cases. Almost invariably, even in the same geological bed, the physical conditions are widely different at different parts in the bed. It is further shown that the penetration of the current into the ground for a given horizontal electrode separation, a, is roughly down to a depth, equal to a. It is therefore, evident that the apparent resistivity calculated from the field observations is a weighted average of the resistivities of the materials present down to this depth. With some prior knowledge about the relative dispositions of the geological formations and their physical conditions, it would be possible, by resistivity surveys, to obtain characteristic resistivities for these formations. It is, thus, that the apparent resistivity-electrode separation curves enable one to decipher the resis- tivity distribution at various depth levels and therefore the nature of the geological formations present. Both empirical and theoretical methods have been developed for determining resistivity characteristics of the various formations. The theoretical methods proposed by Tagg2 and Roman3 are derived from studies of the potential distribution on the surface due to the presence of layers of widely differing resistivities underground. The more recent methods of Wetzel and McMurry4 and Wetzel and Mooney5 are but extensions of the original Roman method of superposition. These methods suffer from lack of similarity of the actual field conditions with those of assumed conditions in developing the theory. The empirical methods such as the one developed by Gish and rooneY6 depend purely on personal observation and local peculiarities, and are applicable only for those limited areas. Out of the empirical methods, moore's7 cumulative resistivity method is still found to be applicable in several localities of differing conditions. While Reudy in 1945 adduced some theoretical justification for the method (Eve and Keys),8 Muskat9 and Mooney 10 tried to show the lack of theoretical basis for the same. It is, however, observed that the method in practice "forms a valuable means of successfully attacking the apparent resistivity curves which fail to respond to the Gish-Rooney, the Tagg or the Roman logarithmic methods" (Ramachandra Rao). 11 Comparatively good results are also reported by Melbyel2 by employing Moore's method in interpreting the resistivity results obtained for ground water in the city of Gunnison, Colo. MOORE'S METHOD As has already been pointed out, the application of the theoretical methods is time-consuming, laborious and sometimes not applicable for quick and accurate interpretation of the field data. moore7 has developed a quick method for obtaining depths to interfaces by plotting the cumulative sums of resistivities, against the corresponding electrode separations a instead of plotting the usual Pa — a curve. In this process of continuous integration, corrections for small variations in resistivities, arising due to local surface conditions or adjacent layers, are made, while large consistent variations are brought out

Jan 1, 1963

By Tilden Cummings

The extractive mineral industries share a number of common characteristics and basic problems which are completely different from those associated with manufacturing and mercantile operations. These industries now supply about 95% of the inanimate energy consumed in this country, and share with agriculture in providing virtually all of our basic raw materials. Mineral producers, like farmers, are subject to the economic hazards of fluctuating markets and prices. Unlike farmers, however, they cannot renew the productivity of the earth, but must seek continually for new sources of supply. The necessity for exploration and development of new reserves, to replace those used up by production, introduces additional factors of economic risk. These operations require the expenditure of large amounts of capital, often well in advance of any assurance of profitability. Commercial banks that understand these special problems can provide a variety of constructive financial services to the mineral industries. The history of cooperation between banks and mining enterprises has yet to be written, but there is every indication that it would encompass a period of hundreds of years. Records refer to depository and lending services by the early European private bankers involving precious metals and jewels. Many of the exploratory voyages to the Far East and the New World were organized with the financial backing of wealthy syndicates, some of which also provided banking services, in the hope of finding new sources of gold and other precious minerals. In the United States many large banks are closely identified with the development of some of the larger mineral deposits such as the Mesabi Range and the gold fields of California.

Jan 5, 1965

By F. C. Smyers, E. W. Merrick

ALTHOUGH the zinc and pyrite concentrates produced at Midvale go to other companies, the United States Smelting Refining and Mining Company smelts and refines its own lead. Refining is the first step of the process that is done at some distance from the mining operations, the plant being at East Chicago, Ind., an industrial center about 25 miles southeast of Chicago. For years it has been notable as being the only lead refinery in the country using the Betts electrolytic process. The original buildings, many of which are still in use, were erected in 1906 when the plant was known as the United States Metals Refining Co. In 1920 the parent company sold its copper refinery at Chrome, N. J., and since the copper refinery was also known as the U. S.

Jan 1, 1948

By William S. Springer

A NEW preparation plant has been put in - operation to treat coal from the recently opened Concord mine, located about 15 miles west of Birmingham, Ala., by the Tennessee Coal, Iron & Railroad Co., a U. S. Steel subsidiary. The mine produces metallurgical grade coking coal from the American seam for use as coke in the company's blast furnaces at the Fairfield and Enseley works. The capacity of the operation is 1000 tons of run-of-mine per hr, approximately half of which is delivered to the by-product coke plant at Fairfield after beneficiation to metallurgical grade. The remaining portion of the mine run is rock and refuse removed during preparation. No boiler coal or other fuels are produced by this mine. Preparation of the coal is done both under- ground and on the surface. The underground primary crushing station removes some tramp iron, and screens and crushes the oversize, most of which is rock, to protect the main slope conveyor. The surface plant consists of a crushing and screening plant, large blending bins, a two- process washing plant, a water clarification and

Jan 1, 1950

By I. A. Ettlinger

DEPRECIATION allowances have become firmly rooted in our income tax structure both by legislation and by court decisions. Secretary of the Treasury Morgenthau has recently stated before the Ways and Means Committee of the House: A taxpayer who did not provide for depreciation of assets used in his business could not long remain in business and the income tax should be levied on the assumption that he will provide for such depreciation. The 1934 Revenue Act has now been enacted, the depreciation provisions of the 1932 Revenue Act having been carried forward without change. However, there has arisen, in connection with the preparation of this new Revenue Act, a determination by the Treasury Department to make certain changes in the future administration of the depreciation allowances that will affect all corporations, and mining companies in particular.

Jan 1, 1934

By AIME AIME

FEATURES of the second fall meeting of the Petroleum Division for 1941, held at the Ambassador Hotel, Los Angeles, Oct. 29-30, were the forum on the Paloma Plan on Thursday after- noon, the large attendance from east of the Rockies, and the dinner on Wednesday evening sponsored by the Southern California Section and at which President Suman spoke on the strategic minerals and metals situation. The attendance was large and the technical fare uniformly good ; the presiding officers had the proceedings well in hand at all times and kept things humming. Some- times it was necessary to taper off the discussion because of pressure on time. All this was due to careful groundwork before the respective sessions. These presiding officers deserve citation: L. W. Huebel, Howard Pyle, E. K. Parks, Carlton Beal, E. G. Trostel. R. W. French, Jr., John Dodge, and H. N. Marsh. The Los Angeles local commit- tees and the Southern California Section deserve much credit for the arrangements, which were recognized by suitable resolutions at the end of the meeting.

Jan 1, 1941

By D. L. McElroy

SAFETY in coal mining received especial attention by the public in general and the mining industry in particular during 1940 and early in 1941, owing primarily to the six explosion disasters which occurred last year with a total of 276 fatalities. This was the largest number of fatalities due to explosions in bituminous coal mines since 1928, when 347 lives were so lost. But facilities due to explosions have had a definite decreasing trend since 1907, in spite of bad years such as 1917, 1924, 1932, 1937, and 1940. Although the upswing in explosion fatalities in 1940 is lamented by all, none will admit it represents a trend and it will serve mainly to stimulate ways and means of further reducing these disasters.

Jan 1, 1941

By R. B. Fuller, E. T. Casler

MANY changes were made in the methods and equipment used in the mining of pebble phosphate rock in the generation immediately preceding the present World War and it would be extremely interesting to note the improvements that will be made during the next generation. Literally, much water has gone over the dam since the days when we used local cordwood for generating steam and drying pebble phosphate rock. belt-driven centrifugal pumps operated by steam engines. and floating dipper or centrifugal dredges; when we removed overburden by small steam shovels and transported it by dinkey locomotives and six-yard cars; when washing machinery was installed on wooden structures the washers being replaced every four to six years. Those were the days when men were plentiful, and 47 different mining companies were selling their products, based on .decidedly meager information; and. like so many mining operations, little thought was given to conservation. As the importance of phosphate rock has become more prominent in the thoughts of our economists, a more intelligent approach has been made to mining problems. Vast improvements have been made in the technique and processing of the phosphate matrix and stripping of overburden, which, in turn, have brought developments in machines and equipment and a more

Jan 1, 1944