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By AIME AIME

OUT of the fabulous iron ranges of Michigan?s Upper Peninsula since Pearl Harbor have come go to the steel mills to become tanks, guns, ships, and other weapons for a United Nations' victory. But the contributions to the war effort, as far as Michigan's iron country is concerned, do not stop there. The same men who mine iron ore deep inside the earth also are "mining" on top of the ground, gleaning a harvest of scrap iron and steel that is writing a big chapter in the War Production Board's salvage program. At virtually every mine over an area of a hundred square miles, everyone from the top mine official and straw boss to the man in the dippings is scrap conscious. They know the importance of the ore they mine but they are equally familiar with the importance of iron and steel scrap in war production. The successful job they are doing in salvage is a tribute to the entire Upper Michigan mining industry and to the man who marshaled them into action-John M. Bush, chief of the land department for the Cleveland- Cliffs Iron Co. at Negaunee, and for ten years an A.I.M.E. member. Also, this job should be an inspiration to 611 mining. metallurgical, and petroleum communities as to the latent possibilities of organized scrap recovery.

Jan 1, 1943

Data about production are very meager. In this county from the earliest days until after the Civil War, the amount of coal used locally greatly exceeded that shipped on account of the iron produced; for many years the furnaces used raw coal for melting the ore. In 1846 it was stated that in this county one ton of iron required three tons of iron ore and three tons of local coal used raw.1 In 1864, eleven furnaces in Pennsylvania using 102,230 tons of raw coal produced 44,671 tons of iron, or 2.3 tons raw coal per ton of pig iron .2 This was probably as good a record as was made, as nearly all furnaces changed to coke some years later. Neither of these figures include the coal used for steam and other purposes around an iron plant. The Beaver and Erie Canal was opened in 1845 and the shipments shown from then to 1865, inclusive, are of coal received by the canal at Erie, and do not include any used at local points along the canal. From the completion of the Erie and Pittsburgh Railroad in 1864 the tonnage shipped by canal decreased. rapidly, and, while the canal shipments after 1864 are supposed to be those received at Erie by canal only, they may include some rail tonnages. Tonnages on Erie and Pittsburgh Railroad may, and probably do, include some used locally; those on the Jamestown & Franklin Railroad do not. It is likely that both canal and Erie and Pittsburgh Railroad figures include some coal originating in Lawrence County, and possibly a little from Beaver County. These tonnages are not duplicated in the data for either of the other counties. Not all of the railroad reports can be found now.

Jan 1, 1942

By Walter Kauenhowen

The crude-oil production of Germany without Austria during 1938 amounted to 3,864,518 bbl., representing an increase of 21.7 per cent over the 3,173,373 bbl. produced in 1937. Adding the Austrian production, the crude-oil production of the new German Reich totaled 4,259,717 bbl. during 1938, representing an increase of 25.3 per cent compared with the respective figures of the previous year. According to published official data, and using a conversion factor of 1 metric ton equaling 7 bbl., the oil production of Germany in 1938 was as shown in Table 1. A semiofficial publication1 states that the program of the crude-oil industry for the second year (1938) of the four-year plan was successfully accomplished. According to the same source, new drilling developments at the following localities were promising: Reitbrook near Hamburg, Heide in Holstein, Eicklingen-Sandlingen near Celle, Steimbke near Nienburg, Worms in the Rhine Valley, Gifhorn near Braunschweig, Mölme near Oberg, and at other places. The drilling activity for oil is illustrated by the figures in Table 2.

Jan 1, 1939

By Walter Kauenhowen

The crude-oil production of Germany without Austria during 1938 amounted to 3,864,518 bbl., representing an increase of 21.7 per cent over the 3,173,373 bbl. produced in 1937. Adding the Austrian production, the crude-oil production of the new German Reich totaled 4,259,717 bbl. during 1938, representing an increase of 25.3 per cent compared with the respective figures of the previous year. According to published official data, and using a conversion factor of 1 metric ton equaling 7 bbl., the oil production of Germany in 1938 was as shown in Table 1. A semiofficial publication1 states that the program of the crude-oil industry for the second year (1938) of the four-year plan was successfully accomplished. According to the same source, new drilling developments at the following localities were promising: Reitbrook near Hamburg, Heide in Holstein, Eicklingen-Sandlingen near Celle, Steimbke near Nienburg, Worms in the Rhine Valley, Gifhorn near Braunschweig, Mölme near Oberg, and at other places. The drilling activity for oil is illustrated by the figures in Table 2.

Jan 1, 1939

By Frank M. Stephens, Robert D. Macdonald

As processes for handling low-grade or complex ores become more complicated and as new methods are found, the need arises for more complete and detailed pilot-plant studies to protect the capital investment required for a full-scale plant. Occasionally a process is firm technically, but there is a need for a demonstration plant that will convince nontechnical men of the wisdom of investing in a full-scale operation.

Jan 5, 1959

By Otto F. Pfordte

The silver-ore-deposits of the famous district of Cerro de Pasco were discovered in 1630 by Huari-Capcha, an Indian shepherd. In the early part of its history, the district yielded enormous riches. The records from 1784 to 1846 (excluding five years, 1821-25, during which civil war prevailed) show a product of 2,323,526 lbs. of silver; and the value of the total product since the discovery may be estimated at about $565,000,000. The town of Cerro de Pasco is situated in the province of the same name, department of Junin, Peru, 14,250 feet above sea-level. The nearest railway station is on the line of the Callao and Cerro de Pasco R.R., at a distance of about three days' travel on horseback. The population of the town numbers about 6000, mostly native Indians. Mines.—The mines are mainly located in the immediate neighborhood of the town and partly even under the principal streets, being distributed in several very large open cuts 250 to 350 feet deep called tajos, which extend in a nearly direct north and south line west of the town and are known as Tajo de Santa Rosa, Tajo Tingo or Portachuelo, Cajac Graude, Cajac Chico, Salsipuedes, Avella Fuerte, and several smaller ones. Tajo de Santa Rosa, the largest and most southerly, is closely connected on its north side with Tajo Tingo; while the others are entirely separate and lie northward in the order given ; the extreme ends of the series being about a mile apart. Besides these, there are Tajo Descubridora a short distance east of Sta. Rosa and Tajo Matagente, about half a mile north of the main plaza in the town of Cerro de Pasco. The argentiferous deposit consists mainly of a ferruginous sandstone, while the neighboring country-rock is limestone, conglomerate and slate. The judicial fixed point from which all mining claims are measured, is a cross erected on a small elevation east of, and between tajos Sta. Rosa and Tingo, called Santa Catalina. This important

Jan 1, 1895

By E. Lancaster-Jones

THE gravity magnitudes obtained by means of observations with the Eötvös balance in the field are necessarily resultant or total effects due to all abnormalities of mass distribution, including even the effects due to the ellipticity and rotational motion of the whole earth. Since the object of the survey is to isolate the effects which arise solely from some particular subterranean feature, and to deduce therefrom the configuration and extent of this feature, the first step is to eliminate from the observed effects all those due to "disturbing" (i. e., unwanted) features, whether above or below the surface of the ground. The disturbing features have different characteristics, according to their situation relative to the center of the balance and to the horizontal plane through the foot of the balance, or station point; this diversity was recognized by Eötvös, who divided the total effects into so-called Normal, Terrain, Topographical, Cartographical and Subterranean effects. This classification has been adhered to by most subsequent investigators, but the writer prefers to employ the term "three-dimensional," which really indicates the essential character of the class of effect known as "Subterranean," at any rate from the standpoint of the computer of effects. Before disturbing effects can be eliminated, the features must be measured up or surveyed, whether by topographical, mining, or boring methods, and then the effects of each feature calculated and subtracted from the total observed effects. After this the problem of interpreting the residual effects will itself necessitate the computation of the assumed feature, or even a series of trial features.

Jan 1, 1928

Department of Forestry and Geological Development, 435 State Capitol, Atlanta, Ga. S W. McCalhe, State Geologist. A complete list of Bulletins of the Geological Survey of Georgia will be sent upon request. Forty-five Bulletins have been issued, most of which deal with the mineral deposits of the state and are still available; they may be had on payment of postage. The subject matter of those bulletins of most interest is indicated in the following list, with the year of issue and the mailing weight. Bulletin 1, Marbles (1894), 3 lb , 8, Road building materials (1901), 3 lb , 9, Granites and gneisses (1902), 2 lb ; 10, Iron ores (1900), 2 lb , 11, Bauxite (1904), 2 lb.; 12, Coal deposits (1904), 2 lb ; 13, Ocher deposits (1906), 2 lb.; 14, Manganese deposits (1908), 2 lb ; 17, Fossil iron ore (1908), 2 lb.; 18, Clay deposits

Jan 1, 1933

By Rudolf Kudlich

The problem of eliminating the hazards of hoisting in mines has been with us since the industry passed its earliest stages, when coal and ore could be won from surface working and tunnels. At first, safety devices were introduced as means of decreasing the amount of labor necessary to produce the mineral, or to increase the amount that could be obtained from a certain opening. For example, crude ladders replaced winding footpaths or steps cut into the walls of the pit or shaft, decreasing the distance it was necessary to carry the product to the surface and eliminating, to some extent, the hazard introduced by the precarious footing afforded by such paths and steps. Latcr, instead of being carried from the pit on the backs of men, the product was hoisted in buckets or baskets on a rope passing over a pulley or around a windlass. Thus the capacity of the pit was considerably increased, and the hazard due to making many trips up and down the shaft was eliminated. From such beginnings accident prevention in mine hoisting advanced with the importance of the industry, until at present hoisting compares favorably with other branches of the mining industry with reference to safe practices. As in the other branches, this progress has been accomplished along two general lines—by legislation, rules, and education, and by the installation of safety devices. Though due credit must be given the former, it is not so satisfactory as the latter. Legislation, to be effective, requires a policing and inspection system to guarantee enforcement, such as we cannot hope to inaugurate. Rules may be satisfactory so long as the employer controls the labor market, and dismissal or some other form of discipline is an effective means of insuring obedience to the rules; but where labor demand is in excess of the supply, or where labor organizations are in control, such measures are not effective. An educational campaign will draw attention to hazards and may awaken a desire to avoid accidents by exercising the proper care. It is necessary, therefore, to place our reliance mainly on mechanical devices to prevent accidents, and to depend as little as possible on laws,

Jan 1, 1923

By Rudolf Kudlich

The problem of eliminating the hazards of hoisting in mines has been with us since the industry passed its earliest stages, when coal and ore could be won from surface working and tunnels. At first, safety devices were introduced as means of decreasing the amount of labor necessary to produce the mineral, or to increase the amount that could be obtained from a certain opening. For example, crude ladders replaced winding footpaths or steps cut into the walls of the pit or shaft, decreasing the distance it was necessary to carry the product to the surface and eliminating, to some extent, the hazard introduced by the precarious footing afforded by such paths and steps. Latcr, instead of being carried from the pit on the backs of men, the product was hoisted in buckets or baskets on a rope passing over a pulley or around a windlass. Thus the capacity of the pit was considerably increased, and the hazard due to making many trips up and down the shaft was eliminated. From such beginnings accident prevention in mine hoisting advanced with the importance of the industry, until at present hoisting compares favorably with other branches of the mining industry with reference to safe practices. As in the other branches, this progress has been accomplished along two general lines—by legislation, rules, and education, and by the installation of safety devices. Though due credit must be given the former, it is not so satisfactory as the latter. Legislation, to be effective, requires a policing and inspection system to guarantee enforcement, such as we cannot hope to inaugurate. Rules may be satisfactory so long as the employer controls the labor market, and dismissal or some other form of discipline is an effective means of insuring obedience to the rules; but where labor demand is in excess of the supply, or where labor organizations are in control, such measures are not effective. An educational campaign will draw attention to hazards and may awaken a desire to avoid accidents by exercising the proper care. It is necessary, therefore, to place our reliance mainly on mechanical devices to prevent accidents, and to depend as little as possible on laws,

Jan 1, 1923

By Arthur C. Simmons

Oil production and activity in northern and central Pennsylvania was slightly less in 1939 than in the previous year, but owing to higher average prices 1939 was undoubtedly a better business year. The last quarter showed markedly increased activities throughout all of the Pennsylvania fields. Production, Stocks and Price Storage of Pennsylvania crude oil at pipe lines and refineries totaled 5,413,000 bbl. on Dec. 31, 1938, and declined during the year 1,124,000 bbl. to a total of 4,319,000 bbl. at the end of 1939. The stocks of crude at the end of the year represent the lowest point reached in Pennsylvania-grade crude storage in recent years. Stocks increased slightly during April, May and June, but decreased during all other months of 1939. The Bradford field production within the state of Pennsylvania averaged 35,340 bbl. per day throughout 1939, which represents a decrease of 1419 bbl. a day from the 1938 average. The production in central and southern Pennsylvania increased 1176 bbl. per day, averaging 12,159 bbl. throughout 1939. Table 1 includes annual production for the part of Bradford field situated within the state of Pennsylvania, for central and southern Pennsylvania, and for the entire state of Pennsylvania. A definite segregation of production between the Bradford field and central and southern Pennsylvania is slightly ambiguous because a portion of the oil from the newly discovered Music Mountain pool is included statistically in each area. In all probability the entire increase and some small addition to the production from southern Pennsylvania can be attributed to oil produced from the Music Mountain pool. Within the Bradford field, six price changes occurred throughout the year. At the beginning of 1939 the price of Bradford crude oil was $1.80 per barrel, whereas by the end of the year it had risen to $2.50. The weighted average price for Bradford crude during 1939 was $2.059 per barrel.

Jan 1, 1940

By Arthur C. Simmons

Oil production and activity in northern and central Pennsylvania was slightly less in 1939 than in the previous year, but owing to higher average prices 1939 was undoubtedly a better business year. The last quarter showed markedly increased activities throughout all of the Pennsylvania fields. Production, Stocks and Price Storage of Pennsylvania crude oil at pipe lines and refineries totaled 5,413,000 bbl. on Dec. 31, 1938, and declined during the year 1,124,000 bbl. to a total of 4,319,000 bbl. at the end of 1939. The stocks of crude at the end of the year represent the lowest point reached in Pennsylvania-grade crude storage in recent years. Stocks increased slightly during April, May and June, but decreased during all other months of 1939. The Bradford field production within the state of Pennsylvania averaged 35,340 bbl. per day throughout 1939, which represents a decrease of 1419 bbl. a day from the 1938 average. The production in central and southern Pennsylvania increased 1176 bbl. per day, averaging 12,159 bbl. throughout 1939. Table 1 includes annual production for the part of Bradford field situated within the state of Pennsylvania, for central and southern Pennsylvania, and for the entire state of Pennsylvania. A definite segregation of production between the Bradford field and central and southern Pennsylvania is slightly ambiguous because a portion of the oil from the newly discovered Music Mountain pool is included statistically in each area. In all probability the entire increase and some small addition to the production from southern Pennsylvania can be attributed to oil produced from the Music Mountain pool. Within the Bradford field, six price changes occurred throughout the year. At the beginning of 1939 the price of Bradford crude oil was $1.80 per barrel, whereas by the end of the year it had risen to $2.50. The weighted average price for Bradford crude during 1939 was $2.059 per barrel.

Jan 1, 1940

and would also contribute to the post-war employment. -As far as the future is concerned, I doubt whether any of the present geophysical methods will ever be developed to directly indicate ore. However, the geochemical methods and certain combinations between chemical and geological methods now used might be the answer to our prayers for direct and more definite methods of determining the quality of the ore or its relative metal content. Geochemical and spectrochemical analysis of minute content in ground waters, in soil or in plants and trees, living or dead, will be extremely important and I would venture to predict that in the very near future each mining or exploration company and each assay oflice will have its own spectroscope equipped for accurate chemical analysis, not only to guide the daily work in the mine, but also for identifying ores as well as for guiding exploration, geological mapping and the evaluation of geophysical indications. These methods, although they are still in their infancy, promise very much for the future. Radioactivity methods could also be helpful when sufficient facilities for radioactivity determination can be made available. They have already been used to a great extent in oil exploration and experiments have shomn great promise for ore exploration also. As for future surveys of large areas, the exploration for physical contrasts will be made from the air, using aeroplanes, helicopters, etc. Already electrical and magnetic methods have been designed whereby the instruments are carried in the aircraft and by automatic recording the location of anomalies is made in a simple enough manner. It should be possible in this way to cover, say, a square mile in an hour. Later Discussion Replies to Dr Lundberg. J. B. Macelwane.*—Someone has said that if a person knows his subject well enough he can explain it in words of one syllable. The point is well taken and I think the converse is also true. If a person cannot explain a subject clearly in simple words, it is either because he has not sufficient command of the language, or he is not master of his subject. Now it is obvious, it seems to me, that the remedy for both of these unfortunate conditions lies not in less education, but in more. If Dr. Lundberg has met geophysicists who confused and discouraged prospective clients by their inability to talk the language of the mine owner or of the mining engineer or geologist, the fault most probably lay in the geophysicist's lack of sufficient training; but it may also have been the want of ordinary common sense, which no amount of education can supply. It is hard to understand the position taken by Dr. Lundberg. Does he regret his own extensive training? noes he wish to say that he would have had greater success in geophysics if he had been only a mine hand with an instrument and a rule of thumb? As a matter of fact, I find it rather difficult to account for his presentation before this Committee on Geophysics of an emotionally distorted picture of the Report of the Committee on Geophysical Education, after the lapse of an entire year since the Report was read and discussed in its proper place, unless he honestly thinks he is handicapped by his knowledge and training and wishes to warn the whole profession against a similar fate. I regret that I am obliged to disagree so emphatically with Dr. Lundberg's thesis— but I believe it would be dangerous if left unchallenged, both because of the inaccurate statements it contains concerning the recommendations made in the Report and because of the ultimate discredit that would be bound to fall upon genuine geophysics if Dr. Lundberg's recommendations were extensively followed out. S. F. Kelly.*-—The argument that a science and its practitioners can be improved by debasing the standard of educational preparation is indeed a strange argument to come from the pen of a man with the education of Dr. Hans Lundberg. In criticising the Committee report, moreover, he has to a certain extent set up a straw man to belabor. The statement that the Committee report recommends that

Jan 1, 1946

and would also contribute to the post-war employment. -As far as the future is concerned, I doubt whether any of the present geophysical methods will ever be developed to directly indicate ore. However, the geochemical methods and certain combinations between chemical and geological methods now used might be the answer to our prayers for direct and more definite methods of determining the quality of the ore or its relative metal content. Geochemical and spectrochemical analysis of minute content in ground waters, in soil or in plants and trees, living or dead, will be extremely important and I would venture to predict that in the very near future each mining or exploration company and each assay oflice will have its own spectroscope equipped for accurate chemical analysis, not only to guide the daily work in the mine, but also for identifying ores as well as for guiding exploration, geological mapping and the evaluation of geophysical indications. These methods, although they are still in their infancy, promise very much for the future. Radioactivity methods could also be helpful when sufficient facilities for radioactivity determination can be made available. They have already been used to a great extent in oil exploration and experiments have shomn great promise for ore exploration also. As for future surveys of large areas, the exploration for physical contrasts will be made from the air, using aeroplanes, helicopters, etc. Already electrical and magnetic methods have been designed whereby the instruments are carried in the aircraft and by automatic recording the location of anomalies is made in a simple enough manner. It should be possible in this way to cover, say, a square mile in an hour. Later Discussion Replies to Dr Lundberg. J. B. Macelwane.*—Someone has said that if a person knows his subject well enough he can explain it in words of one syllable. The point is well taken and I think the converse is also true. If a person cannot explain a subject clearly in simple words, it is either because he has not sufficient command of the language, or he is not master of his subject. Now it is obvious, it seems to me, that the remedy for both of these unfortunate conditions lies not in less education, but in more. If Dr. Lundberg has met geophysicists who confused and discouraged prospective clients by their inability to talk the language of the mine owner or of the mining engineer or geologist, the fault most probably lay in the geophysicist's lack of sufficient training; but it may also have been the want of ordinary common sense, which no amount of education can supply. It is hard to understand the position taken by Dr. Lundberg. Does he regret his own extensive training? noes he wish to say that he would have had greater success in geophysics if he had been only a mine hand with an instrument and a rule of thumb? As a matter of fact, I find it rather difficult to account for his presentation before this Committee on Geophysics of an emotionally distorted picture of the Report of the Committee on Geophysical Education, after the lapse of an entire year since the Report was read and discussed in its proper place, unless he honestly thinks he is handicapped by his knowledge and training and wishes to warn the whole profession against a similar fate. I regret that I am obliged to disagree so emphatically with Dr. Lundberg's thesis— but I believe it would be dangerous if left unchallenged, both because of the inaccurate statements it contains concerning the recommendations made in the Report and because of the ultimate discredit that would be bound to fall upon genuine geophysics if Dr. Lundberg's recommendations were extensively followed out. S. F. Kelly.*-—The argument that a science and its practitioners can be improved by debasing the standard of educational preparation is indeed a strange argument to come from the pen of a man with the education of Dr. Hans Lundberg. In criticising the Committee report, moreover, he has to a certain extent set up a straw man to belabor. The statement that the Committee report recommends that

Jan 1, 1946

By M. Garfinkle

LITERATURE data1'3 have suggested that the resolved shear stress necessary to initiate slip in a particular slip system in tungsten single crystals is strongly dependent on the tensile orientation of the crystals. This orientation dependence is contrary to the critical resolved shear stress criterion. Because the Schmid factors for slip on particular {110}( I l l), {112}(Ill), or {123}(111) slip systems in a (100) oriented tungsten crystal are virtually identical to the respective Schmid factors for a (110) oriented crystal, slip should initiate on the same system in both orientations, independent of the values of the critical resolved shear stresses. Thus, it would be expected that, for a critical resolved shear stress model to hold, the proportional-limit stress for these two orientations must be similar. The expectation of similar proportional -limit stresses has not been borne out by reported experimental observations. Rose et nl.' reported that the proportional-limit stress for crystals near the (110) orientation was 92,000 psi, approximately three times that of (100) oriented crystals (31,000 psi). Garlick and probst2 reported greater than a fourfold difference. Most recently, Beardmore and ~ull~ examined tungsten crystals with orientations along the edge of the standard stereographic triangle and showed a gradual increase in proportional-limit stress from 28,000 psi for the (100) orientation to 93,000 psi for the (110) orientation. Again, the difference was more than threefold. As has been emphasized by these investigators, the apparent gross variation of proportional-limit stress with orientation precludes any meaningful analysis of slip mechanics using a simple critical resolved shear stress relation. The purpose of the present communication is to report that, by use of refined strain-measuring techniques, the proportional-limit stresses for the (100) and (110) orientations are quite similar. Obviously, to determine accurately the value of the proportional-limit stress, which is by definition the stress at which nonlinear stress-strain behavior first occurs, the method of measuring strain must be capable of high accuracy. The investigators cited used as the measured elongation the crosshead displacement of the tensile machine. This method, however, introduces extraneous strain contributions from the load train. Because these extraneous contributions are considerable in the initial portions of loading (as has been well-documented in the literature) the proportional-limit stress measurement, dependent on the deviation of a line from linearity, can be significantly affected. During the course of a recent study, room-temperature strain was measured directly on several (100)-and (110)-oriented tensile specimens axially oriented within 5 deg of the desired direction. Each specimen was fitted with two foil strain gages mounted on opposite sides of the 0.08-in.-diam reduced section. The tensile specimens were loaded at a crosshead speed of 0.01 in. per min on an Instron Universal Testing Machine. Strain was monitored through an external bridge circuit in which the specimen strain gages comprised two arms. The bridge output was recorded against the applied load. A strain of 2 x 10"" could be readily detected by this method. Some specimens were subjected to conventional loading while the load for others was cycled between zero and continually increasing values until the first deviation from linearity was observed. The results of these methods were similar, and the stress at which nonlinear behavior occurred was considered the proportional-limit stress. The proportional-limit stresses measured in this study are approximately 5000 and 6500 psi for the ( 100) - and ( 110) -oriented crystals, respectively, a range of values almost a magnitude less than those reported previously. Representative curves are presented in Fig. 1. Because of the nature of the measurements made, the point of departure of a line from linearity is often debatable. While the load-strain curve for the (100) -oriented crystals made a relatively abrupt deviation from linearity, the curve for the (110) -oriented crystal was more gradual, so that the actual point of tangency may be at a lower load than reported. Thus, the difference in values for the proportional-

Jan 1, 1967

By AIME AIME

M ALBERTSON is research engineer for the Shell Petroleum COT. He joined the Roxana Petroleum Corp. (later the Shell) in 1920, at Hanger, Texas, became district geologist at Shreveport, and after two years was transferred to the production department, where he has been for the past fifteen years. His jobs have ranged from a modest field engineer up to assistant production manager. During this time hc has successively resided in Texas, Louisiana, Missouri, Louisiana, Oklahoma, Missouri, Texas, The Hague (Holland), and Texas. II? the Yates Pool, Texas, in 1929, "Al" initiated' the tubing of wells under pressure to control gas-oil ratios, particularly at restricted rates of flow. This led to the compulsory tubing of all oil wells drilled in the State

Jan 1, 1937

By C. A. Hartnagel

In 1939 the production of crude oil in New York totaled 5,105,000 bbl. This marks the third consecutive year production of crude oil has exceeded 5,000,000 bbl. and only once has this total been surpassed—in the year 1882, three years after the discovery of oil in Allegany County, when the annual production was more than 6,000,000 barrels. The most gratifying feature of the industry was the increased demand for lubricants, which resulted in advanced prices for crude. From a price at the beginning of the year of $1.68 per barrel, six advances totaling 82c brought the year's closing to $2.50 per barrel. A further increase in price on Jan. 1, 1940, to $2.75 per barrel places the local industry in a strong position for the year's operations. Most of the oil production of the state is now obtained by water-flooding, and the industry is practically stabilized. No new pools have been discovered in over 25 years, and border drilling indicates little prospect of extending the boundaries of the fields beyond their present limits. Deep drilling to the Oriskany sandstone in and close to the present oil fields hay failed to find oil in substantial amounts. Altogether, the oil pools of New York have produced during the 60 years that they have been exploited approximately 125,000,000 bbl. of oil. Following the flush production of 1882, the annual production gradually dccrcased and the year 1912 marked an all-time low of only 782,000 bbl. In 1919, as a result of flooding operations, a definite upward trend in oil production was recorded. During that year also the production of oil by water-flooding methods as approved by Legislative action. In the 21-yr. period beginning with 1919, oil production in the state ha.: totaled 60,338,000 bbl. Thus it will be seen that by the aid of flooding methods nearly as much oil has been produced in the last 21 yr. as in the preceding 40 yr., although the Iatter period included the flush production in 1882. As there is little hope of extending the area of the present producing oil fields of the state, producers and refiners are concerned regarding the future life of the fields. It is encouraging to observe that earlier esti- Published by permission of Director of New York State Museum, Albany, N. P. Summarized at meeting; manuscript received at the office of the Institute March 20. 1940.

Jan 1, 1940

By C. A. Hartnagel

In 1939 the production of crude oil in New York totaled 5,105,000 bbl. This marks the third consecutive year production of crude oil has exceeded 5,000,000 bbl. and only once has this total been surpassed—in the year 1882, three years after the discovery of oil in Allegany County, when the annual production was more than 6,000,000 barrels. The most gratifying feature of the industry was the increased demand for lubricants, which resulted in advanced prices for crude. From a price at the beginning of the year of $1.68 per barrel, six advances totaling 82c brought the year's closing to $2.50 per barrel. A further increase in price on Jan. 1, 1940, to $2.75 per barrel places the local industry in a strong position for the year's operations. Most of the oil production of the state is now obtained by water-flooding, and the industry is practically stabilized. No new pools have been discovered in over 25 years, and border drilling indicates little prospect of extending the boundaries of the fields beyond their present limits. Deep drilling to the Oriskany sandstone in and close to the present oil fields hay failed to find oil in substantial amounts. Altogether, the oil pools of New York have produced during the 60 years that they have been exploited approximately 125,000,000 bbl. of oil. Following the flush production of 1882, the annual production gradually dccrcased and the year 1912 marked an all-time low of only 782,000 bbl. In 1919, as a result of flooding operations, a definite upward trend in oil production was recorded. During that year also the production of oil by water-flooding methods as approved by Legislative action. In the 21-yr. period beginning with 1919, oil production in the state ha.: totaled 60,338,000 bbl. Thus it will be seen that by the aid of flooding methods nearly as much oil has been produced in the last 21 yr. as in the preceding 40 yr., although the Iatter period included the flush production in 1882. As there is little hope of extending the area of the present producing oil fields of the state, producers and refiners are concerned regarding the future life of the fields. It is encouraging to observe that earlier esti- Published by permission of Director of New York State Museum, Albany, N. P. Summarized at meeting; manuscript received at the office of the Institute March 20. 1940.

Jan 1, 1940

By G. Sachs, S. I. Liu

Introduction In a previous investigation on the effects of repeated strains of large magnitude on the aluminum alloy 24 ST, it was found that the reduction in ductility by straining in tension was partially restored by a subsequent compression.&apos; As illustrated by the dashed line in Fig I,$ the ductility (e~) retained after prestraining in tension by a certain amount (el) and measured in a subsequent tension test is represented by a straight line sloping down under 4s°. If a compression of the same magnitude as the first tension is inserted (€2 = — €1) between prestraining and final testing in tension, such a "balanced" tension-compression cycle yields a ductility considerably higher than that present after prestraining in tension only. The results of these tests can be correlated with those of an investigation on the effects of prestraining in compression.~ As also shown in Fig I, the ductility in subsequent tensile tests decreased with com- pression, at a rate considerably slower than that after prestraining in tension. The above discussed testing conditions can be considered as special cases of a general straining cycle, consisting of first, straining in tension by an amount el, subsequently straining in compression by an amount e2, and finally determining the retained &apos;ductility, e,, in a tensile test. Prestraining in tension is then represented by el > o and e2 = o. Prestraining in compression is given by e~ = o and e~ < o. Balanced cyclic straining is defined by the condition el > o and cz = — 61. In order to obtain further information on the effects of straining cycles consisting of tension and subsequent compression, further tests were made, varying both the tension strain, el, and the compression strain, e2, within extreme limits; el varied between 0.06 and 0.28 and e2 between — 0.008 and —0.h approximately. Apparently, such tests have not been previously performed. They revealed phenomena which have not been recognized to date, The results of the investigation are herewith reported, without attempting to correlate them with internal processes within the metal structure. However, in order to assist in an analysis of this type, the results have been represented in various manners. In addition, further test data on the effects of prestraining by compression were provided by using specimens of various contours (notched specimens) in the sub-

Jan 1, 1949

By John F. Elliott, Martin Weinstein

The solubility of hydrogen in liquid Pure iron and in a number of liquid binary iron alloys has been measured in a Sieverts&apos;-type apparatus. Sieverts&apos; law is obeyed in all alloys studied UP to 1 atm Pressure H2. The alloying elements, Al, B, C, Co, Cu, Ge, P, S, and Sn, decrease the solubility while Cb, Cr, Mn, and Ni increase it. ALTHOUGH the importance of hydrogen in steel-making has long been recognized, there has been, until recently, very little information in the literature on the effect of alloying elements on the solubility of hydrogen in iron. There is also disagreement on the solubility of the gas in liquid pure iron. Because of the earlier work in this laboratory,1,2 with the Sieverts method to determine the solubility of nitrogen in liquid iron alloys, it was decided to apply the equipment and procedure to hydrogen. The literature that is pertinent to this study (Ftefs. 1 through 15) will be discussed later when the results of this investigation are considered rather than at this point to avoid repetition. The reaction under study is:

Jan 1, 1963