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By George F. Learning

TOTAL DIRECT IMPACT The uranium mining industry's principal economic impacts on the Texas economy are the result of three flows of money from the industry into the remainder of the state's economy. These three are: (1) money paid to individuals (personal income) ; (2) money paid to other businesses (business income); and (3) money paid to state and local governments (government revenues). As these direct payments from the uranium industry to various other sectors of the Texas economy subsequently circulate and recirculate within the state, the indirect effects of uranium mining's direct impacts multiply to reach amounts significantly higher than the direct income flows alone. Over the past decade, the uranium mining industry has substantially increased its role as a provider of jobs, personal income, business income, and government revenues in Texas. The growth has come almost exclusively in a largely rural, seven-county area that lies within the triangle formed by the Laredo, San Antonio, and Corpus Christi metropolitan areas. The uranium mining industry, in fact, has been the major dynamic element in this rural area despite relative stagnation in most of the region's other basic economic sectors. Over the three years from 1976 to 1978, the South Texas uranium mining industry directly contributed a total of $115 million to the economy of the seven- county region in which it operated and $164 million to the economy of the entire state of Texas. In 1979 alone, the total direct contribution of the industry to the Texas economy had climbed to $124 million in personal, business, and government income. PERSONAL INCOME IMPACT In the period from 1976 through 1978, the South Texas uranium mining industry provided an average of $12.5 million in personal income each year directly to residents of Atascosa, Bee, Duval , Karnes, Live Oak, McMullen, and Webb counties -- the seven Texas' counties that make up the South Texas Uranium Belt. A1 though 84 percent of this resulted from the employment of area residents in uranium industry jobs, some amounts were also provided by the payment of rents and royalties to land owners for the use of their land and mineral rights in uranium mining operations. In 1979, the uranium industry provided approximately $38 million to residents of the Uranium Belt and the rest of Texas. This was more than double the average of $16.1 million provided to Texas residents during the 1976 to 1978 period. The full importance of the uranium industry as a source of personal income, however, should not be reckoned merely by the amount of wages and salaries that it pays directly to its own employees, nor by its rent and royalty payments paid directly to land and mineral rights owners living in Texas. The added payments that the industry makes directly to other Texas businesses and state and local governments in Texas are themselves converted into personal income as those business firms and government units in turn pay their employees. All of the direct income payments made by the uranium industry circulate and recirculate within the state's economy, multiplying their impact as they go, until they eventually all leak out of the state as federal taxes or as payments to individuals or businesses located outside of Texas. The combined circulation and recirculation of the direct personal, business, and government income that was provided by the-uranium industry in Texas during 1976, 1977, and 1978 resulted in an average annual amount of indirect personal income of more than $83 mill ion. This alone was $20 mill ion more than the industry's average annual sales during the same years. The total of combined direct and indirect personal income contributed to the Texas economy by the uranium mining industry in that same three-year period thus averaged almost $100 million annually. In 1979, the amount of indirect personal income contributed to the Texas economy by the circulation of uranium mining's direct contributions had risen to about $196 million, more than double the average of the previous three years. The combined direct and in- direct personal income impact in 1979 thus amounted to $234 million. BUSINESS INCOME IMPACT The income provided directly to other Texas business firms through the purchase of needed goods and services by the uranium industry has been twice as big as the industry's payrolls. In 1976, 1977, and 1978, the South Texas uranium industry spent an average of almost $36 million each year to buy both goods and services from other Texas businesses. By 1979, this direct contribution to the Texas economy had swollen to $76 million. The biggest share of the uranium industry's payments to other businesses have gone to contracting firms, including both construction firms and those providing specialized mining services. In the past four years, about 40 percent of the direct payments made by Texas uranium producers to other Texas firms have been to contractors. Texas wholesale and retail firms have also shared in the business sales provided by the South Texas uranium mining industry. Over the past four years, Texas wholesale and retail trade businesses have accounted for about 34 percent of the uranium mining industry's purchases from other Texas businesses. Public utilities firms have received another six per- cent, while Texas manufacturers and transportation firms have accounted for about five percent each. The other sectors of the state's economy, including other mineral industries, agriculture, finance, insurance, real estate, and services, have accounted

Jan 1, 1980

By A. A. Collins

H. R. BIANCO*—I should like to ask Mr. Collins if that statement he made about the addition of drosses to the blast furnace slowing down the blast furnace is a result of his own experience or a result of the experience of some older metallurgists; and perhaps I should ask him to define the type of drosses that he means. A. A. COLLINS (author's reply)— That has been my own personal experience with dross. On various occasions at Chihuahua we attempted to incorporate the dross in our regular blast furnace charge and to shut down the dross re-verberatory to try to save some money. As expected, we had very poor results. I think that Ed Fleming will well remember on one occasion, that was back about 1933, when we attempted the first experiment along this line, and as a result of the sulphur addition to the blast furnace to matte out the copper we ended up with hanging furnaces and mushy slags and abandoned the dross experiment, once again turning to the use of the reverbera-tory for handling dross. H. R. BIANCO—Is that dross you refer to from the drossing kettle ? A. A. COLLINS—Yes, the dross that I am referring to came from drossing kettles. Furthermore, to back up my previous assertion, I had occasion in 1943, while up at Leadville, to once again experience the routing of dross through the blast furnace with its sulphur addition, since they had no dross re-verberatory, and to observe that once thf dross was removed, the furnace was speeded up almost 100 tons a day. All of these are personal experiences and I think that Mr. Feddersen also has had a little experience along this line —in fact, I believe all of us have had some experience. H. R. BIANCO—I know at Trail they recirculate considerable dross through the blast furnaces and we also recirculate dross at Herculaneuin and I am not aware that it has done much towards slowing down the blast furnace. A. A. COLLINS—We have always had very poor results. In the first place you have got to add a sulphur addition to pick up that copper and once you do that, that sulphur is apt to combine with some of the zinc and you are going to form a little mush; before you know it you have furnace hangs and a poor working furnace. Now of course that depends on the amount of zinc you have on charge. But in 1943, Leadville had roughly about 7 pet zinc in their slag and it worked very poorly. Previously when they had 4 or 5 pet zinc in their slag it did not matter. B. L. SACKETT* At Tooele we had a great deal of experience with copper. We have always been able to keep a lead well, however, in spite of the fact we have run as much as 5 pet copper and only 15 pet lead on the charge. But regarding the handling of dross, our dross reverberatory furnace is only 7 or 8 years old. Before that we recirculated the dross through the furnace and thought we were doing a pretty nice job. Of course these things are all more or less relative—in other words you establish a certain condition much better than one of a few years ago and possibly as good as any other of which you know and you think you have pretty good results. When we first took the dross off of the blast furnace and put it through the dross reverberatory furnace we immediately found out that we had gained something very real in furnace speed. Since that time there have been occasions when, because of the dross reverberatory being down, we have had to use dross again through the blast furnace and that has checked our original experience in slowing down the furnace very definitely. So we feel that a dross reverberatory is a very valuable asset at the Tooele Plant. A. A. CENTER*—Mr. Sackett's being here reminds me of trying to run with a minimum of lead concentrates the maximum of dross producing electrolytic zinc plant residue. He came up from International Smelting Co. to help us get started on that. We took an old copper blast furnace at Great Falls, Montana, and made a lead furnace out of it by putting a lead well on the other long side which of course is a very unorthodox lead blast furnace. Our aim was to treat the residue from the electrolytic zinc plant, as I said, with a minimum of lead concentrates. That meant a maximum amount of dross. At that time selective flotation was not general practice, so our zinc concentrates ran relatively high in copper and other dross-producing elements; and of course these were largely in the zinc plant residue. I think we might call it muscle metallurgy, but we had an interesting, successful experience there and we ran for over a year thanks to Mr. Sackett's helping us get started. I have the details, but time does not permit. We did well enough so that the A. S. and R. Co. at East Helena kept boosting up the offer to us for the electrolytic zinc plant residue and there was not enough lead concentrate to supply two lead smelters there in Montana, so the matter finally finished up by the A. S. and R. Co. taking all of the residue under long term contracts.

Jan 1, 1950

By J. R. Schneider

INTRODUCTION Landowners in Texas for many years have freely granted, reserved and leased "oil, gas and other minerals" or interests therein. In recent years we have witnessed much litigation concerning what sub- stances should be included as "other minerals" within the phrase "oil, gas and other minerals," and this question has received the attention of numerous legal scholars. At the South Texas Uranium Seminar held in Corpus Christi, Texas, in September, 1978, Mr. William R. Dodson presented a paper dealing with this very subject and entitled "Uranium - Mineral or Surface? Who Owns It?" In his paper, Mr. Dodson reported on two recent Texas Supreme Court decisions, Acker v. a, 464 S.W.2d 348 (Tex. 1971) and Reed v. Wylie, 554 S.W.2d 169 (Tex. 1977). which held that the particular substance in question in each case is not a mineral within the phrase "oil, gas and other minerals" if substantial quantities of the substance lie so near the surface that production will entail the stripping away and substantial destruction of the surface. Since that time another chapter has been written in the Texas saga of "When is a Mineral not a Mineral?" and it is the intent of this paper to present an update of the Texas law. A review of the early Texas cases so ably covered by Mr. Dodson in his paper will not be repeated, except as is necessary to illustrate the evolution of the legal doc- trine which has been so aptly named "The Surface Destruction Test". BACKGROUND In order to appreciate the genesis of the problem, one must consider that oil and gas production commenced in Texas many years ago, Spindletop came in in 1901. As oil and gas became more valuable, land- owners with considerable frequency sold interest in the oil, gas and mineral estates in their lands, and reserved interest in the oil, gas and mineral estates in their lands when they disposed of their property. Due to the oil and gas background, and perhaps be- cause oil and gas was paramount in the minds of the parties, the traditional language employed in these grants and reservations was "oil, gas and other minerals" or variations thereof. There are literally hundreds of instruments employing this language constituting a link in the chains of title to thous- ands of acres of Texas land. In addition, there are thousands of acres of Texas land held by oil, gas and mineral leases, the primary terms of which have been perpetuated by production, containing similar language in their granting clauses. The severance of the mineral estate from the surface estate results in two separate and distinct estates, each having all of the incidents and attributes of an estate in land. with the surface estate being the serviant estate, and the mineral estate being the dominant estate and having certain easements in the surface estate to explore. produce and remove the minerals. Harris v. Currie. 176 S.W.2d 302, 305 (Tex. 1943). As observed by the court in the Harris case, this is because a grant or reservation of minerals would be wholly worthless if the grantee or reservor co~lld rwt enter upon the land in order to explore for and extract the minerals granted or reserved. Although the Texas law has recognized that an oil and gas lessee has the right to use so much of the surface as is reasonably necessary to produce the minerals. Warren Petroleum Corporation v. Monzingo, 304 S.W.2d 362, 363 (Tex. 1957), recent decisions of the Court have qualified this doctrine. In Getty Oil Company v. Jones. 470 S.W.2d 618 (Tex. 1971). Getty's pumpine, units were interfering with ones self-propelled sprinkler system utilized for irrigating the premises, and Jones sought to require Getty to install the-pumping units in cellars so that the sprinkler system could pass over them. In an effort to accommodate both the surface estate and the mineral estate, the court held (page 622) "...where there is an existing use by the surface owner which would otherwise be precluded or impaired, and where under the established practices in the industry there are alternatives available to the lessee whereby the minerals can be recovered, the rules of reasonable usage of the surface may require the adoption of an alternative by the lessee". Bearing in mind that the "reasonable use doctrine" grew up in the oil and gas industry involving sub- stances which can be produced by methods that do not destroy or deplete the surface estate, the question presented is whether the Texas courts will extend this doctrine to situations where claimants of "other minerals" seek to produce shallow deposits of iron ore, coal, lignite and uranium by surface mining methods which do destroy or deplete the surface estate? The surface destruction test has answered this question in the negative, at least as to iron. coal and lignite. However, the multitude of mineral estates in Texas which have been created by a grant. reservation or lease of "oil, gas and other minerals" will, doubtlessly, continue to fuel the fires of litigation. EARLY TEXAS DECISIONS In view of the evolution of the Surface Destruc- tion Test, an exhaustive review of the early Texas

Jan 1, 1980

By James H. Courtright, Kenyon Richard

SILVER Bell is situated 35 airline miles northwest of Tucson, Ariz., in a small, rugged range rising above the extensive alluvial plains of this desert region. Its geographical relation to other porphyry copper deposits of the Southwest is shown on the inset map in the lower left corner of Fig. 1. The climate is semi-arid. Altitudes range within 2000 and 4000 ft. Opening of the Boot mine, later known as the Mammoth, in 1865 was the first event of note in the district's history. Oxidized copper ores containing minor silver-lead values were mined from replacement deposits in garnetized limestone and treated in local smelters. Copper production had approached 45 million pounds by 1909 when the disseminated copper possibilities in igneous rocks were recognized. Extensive churn drill exploration carried out during the next three years resulted in partial delineation of two copper sulphide deposits, the Oxide and El Tiro. Although the then submarginal tenor discouraged exploitation of these disseminated deposits, selective mining of orebodies in the sedimentary rocks continued intermittently until 1930, providing a production total of about 100 million pounds of copper. The American Smelting & Refining Co. began exploratory and check drilling in 1948 and subsequently made plans for mining and milling the Oxide and El Tiro orebodies at the rate of 7500 tons per day. Production began in 1954 at a rate of about 18,000 tons of copper annually. Formations ranging in age from Pre-Cambrian to Recent are exposed in the Silver Bell vicinity. The more erosion-resistant of these, Paleozoic limestone and Tertiary volcanics, predominate in the scattered peaks and ridges comprising the Silver Bell mountains. The porphyry copper deposits are located along the southwest flank of these mountains in hydrothermally altered igneous rocks. These are principally intrusives which cut Cretaceous and older sediments and are considered to be components of the Laramide Revolution. For three-fourths of its length the zone of alteration strikes west-northwest, Fig. 1. There now is no single structure that accounts for this alignment. However, indirect evidence suggests that a fault representing a line of profound structural weakness existed in this position prior to the advent of Laramide intrusive activity. This line will be referred to as the major structure. It was obliterated by the Laramide intrusive bodies but exerted a degree of control on their emplacement, as evidenced by their shapes and positions. The influence of fault structures on the shapes of intrusives in other porphyry copper districts has been noted by Butler and Wilson' and by others. As shown on the inset map on Fig. 2, a fault of parallel trend and considerable displacement lies to the north. This fault is now marked by a line of small Laramide intrusive bodies. To the south is a third fault of large displacement. Evidence of its age in relation to the Laramide intrusions and mineralization is not recognized, but its conformance in strike with the other two major faults is significant. These three breaks establish a pronounced trend of regional faulting. They are high-angle, and the southerly one may be reverse, Stratigraphic separations on these faults are of the order of several thousand feet. The local Paleozoic section is about 4000 ft thick. It is composed predominantly of limestone with a basal quartzite member. The Cretaceous section appears to exceed 5000 ft. Conglomerates, red shales, and arkosic sandstones (the youngest) characterize the three principal members. Intrusion of alaskite marked the beginning of Laramide igneous activity. It was emplaced as an elongate stock with one side closely conforming to the major structure line throughout a distance of nearly 4 miles. The alaskite was at one time regarded as a thrust block of pre-Cambrian rock'; however, its intrusive relationship and consequent post-Paleozoic age has been established by inclusions of limestone found in outcrops north of El Tiro. The next event was the intrusion of a large stock of dacite porphyry into Paleozoic sediments and alaskite. The stock was some 3 miles wide and at least 6 miles long in a northwesterly direction. It was sharply confined along its southwest side by the major structure line. A number of large pendants of moderately folded Paleozoic sediments occur within and along its southwest edge. Thus the inferred, original major fault between Paleozoic and Cretaceous sediments became a contact between alaskite and Paleozoic sediments and then a contact between dacite porphyry and alaskite. Andesite porphyry may have been intruded later than the dacite porphyry, but relationships are not clear; it may be simply a facies of the latter. The intrusive activity was at this stage interrupted by an interval of erosion. The erosion surface probably was rugged, as there were local accumulations of coarse, angular conglomerate. Subsequently a series of volcanic flows and pyroclastics several thousand feet thick was deposited. A similar unconformity has been recognized elsewhere in the Southwest, particularly in the Patagonia Mountains near the Flux mine some 75 miles southeasterly. Here, as at Silver Bell, volcanics were deposited on an erosion surface cut in Cretaceous and older sediments which had been intruded by alaskite. Though no evidence is offered that closely defines the age of this unconformity, and proper analysis of the problem is beyond the scope of this paper, it is

Jan 1, 1955

By D. T. Peters, S. Floreen

The age hardening behavior of an Fe-8Ni-13Mo alloy was studied after the matrix had been varied to produce either ferrite, cold u~orked ferrite, or nzassive nzartensite. The aging behavior of the cold worked ferrite and murtensite structures were very similar. The martensite aging kinetics were much different from those observed in earlier studies of aging of maraging steels, even though the martensite wzatri.r had the same dislocation structure as those found in maraging steels. The results suggest that the previously observed precipitation kinetics of maraging steels ?nay have been controlled by the nucleation be-haviov, which in turn were dictated by the alloy compositions and the resultant identities of the precipitating phases. IT is well known that the rate of precipitation from solid solution depends not only on the degree of super-saturation, but also on the density and distribution of dislocations in the matrix structure. These imperfections often act as nucleation sites, and may also enhance atomic mobility. 'Thus, the presence of dislocations is important since the type and distribution of precipitates may be determined by them. The precipitate density and morphology in turn affects the mechanical properties of the alloy. A number of studies have been devoted to the precipitation characteristics in various types of maraging steels.'-" These are iron-base alloys containing 10 to 25 pct Ni along with other substitutional elements such as Mo, Ti, Al, and so forth, that are used to produce age hardening. The carbon contents of these steels are quite low, and carbide precipitation is not believed to play any significant role in the aging reactions. After solution annealing and cooling these alloys generally transfclrm to a bcc lath or massive martensite structure characterized by elongated martensite platelets that are separated from each other by low angle boundaries, and that contain a very high dislocation den~it~.~~~~~~~~-~~ Age hardening is then conducted at temperatures on the order of 800" to 1000°F to produce substitutional element precipitation within the massive martensite matrix. Most of the aging studies to date have revealed several common traits in these alloys, regardless of the particular identity of the precipitation elements. Generally hardening has been found to be extremely rapid, with incubation times that approach zero. The agng kinetics, at least up to the time when reversion of the martensite matrix to austenite begins to predominate, frequently follow a AX/~~ = ktn type law, where x is hardness or electrical resistivity, t is the time, and k and n are constants. The values of n are frequently on the order of 0.2 to 0.5, which are well below the idealized values of n based on diffusion controlled precipitate growth models. Finally, the observed activation energy values are typically on the order of 30 kcal per mole, and thus are well below the nominal value of about 60 kcal per mole found for substitutional element diffusion in ferrite. The common explanation of these observations is that the precipitation kinetics are controlled by the massive martensite matrix structure. Thus, the absence of any noticeable incubation time has been attributed, after ~ahn," to the fact that the precipitate nucleation on dislocations may occur without a finite activation energy barrier. The low values of the activation energy are generally assumed to be due to enhanced diffusivity in the highly faulted structure. If this explanation that the precipitation kinetics are dominated by the matrix structure is correct then one should observe a distinct difference in lunetics between aging in a martensitic matrix and aging the same alloy when it has a ferritic matrix. Such a comparison cannot be made with conventional maraging compositions, but could be made with the alloy used in the present study. In addition, the ferritic structure of the present alloy could be cold worked to produce a high dislocation density so that one could determine whether ferrite in this condition would age similarly to martensite. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE The composition of the alloy used in this study was 8.1 pct Ni, 13.0 pct Mo, 0.10 pct Al, 0.13 pct Ti, 0.012 pct C, bal Fe. The alloy was prepared as a 40 lb vacuum induction melt. The heat was homogenized and hot forged at 2100°F to 2 by 2 in. bar, and then hot rolled at 1900°F to $ in. bar stock. The aging lunetics were followed by Rockwell C hardness and electrical resistivity measurements. Samples for hardness testing were prepared as small strips approximately 2 by $ by 4 in. thick. Electrical resistivity was studied on cylindrical samples approximately 2 in. long by 0.1 in. diam. The method for making the alloy either martensitic or ferritic was based on the fact that the alloy showed a closed y loop type of phase diagram. At high temperatures, above approximately 24003F, the alloy was entirely ferritic. Small samples on the order of the dimensions described above remained entirely ferritic after iced-brine quenching from this temperature. In practice, a heat treatment of 1 hr in an inert atmosphere at 2500°F followed by water quenching was used to produce the ferritic microstructure. These samples were quite coarse grained and usually en-

Jan 1, 1970

By R. R. Jones, R. W. Kraft

Zn-Mg2Znn eutectic alloys nzay freeze willr either rodlike or lanzellar rnorphology. Alloys with slighlly more than /he eutectic arrzount of rnagnesillrn usually contain three-cnned dendrjles of MgzZnll in a eutec-lic ttlulris. All three morphologies haue the same cryslallographic orientution relationship: (0UOl) zn - 11 (111) Mg2Znll and (2310)Zn 11(101) Mg2Znll, but u3ith different prej-erred groulth direclions. The lurnellae lo rods transifion in con/rolled ingols qf euleclic cotnposition occurs because lhe large kinelic undercooling due to MgzZnll minirrzizes /he ejj-ecl of the solid-solid inlerface energy. The eutectic morphology is influenced by the presence of lhree-nned dendrites 0-f MgzZn11 which may conlrol /he rricroslrccture by acting as nuclealion sites. In recent years there has been much interest in eutectic solidification and several theories have been proposed. One of the confusing factors is the existence of various morphologies in which the solidified phases may form. The lamellar microstructure seems to be most common in metal eutectics, and it has been claimed' that all regular eutectics should be lamellar if sufficiently pure. However, there still remain eutectic alloys which are not lamellar or which change their morphology as a function of growth conditions. The eutectic between zinc and the intermetallic phase Mg2Znll was chosen for this investigation because it has been found to solidify in more than one morphology. The diagram in anssen' locates the eutectic point at 3.0 wt pct Mg and 367°C. lliott gives 364°C as the eutectic temperature, leaving the phase compositions unaltered. Since the growth conditions determine the micro-structure of the solidified alloy, the factors controlling the transition from one morphology to another could be studied. The lamellae to rods transition is of particular interest. PROCEDURE Alloys were prepared from carefully weighed portions of 99.999 pct Zn and 99.97 pct Mg by melting in Pyrex containers under argon and casting into graphite boats. The resulting ingots were remelted under argon and solidified unidirectionally in a horizontal tube furnace at growth rates ranging from 2.0 to more than 50 cm per hr under a temperature gradient, measured over a 5-cm length, of 9" to 14°C per cm. The solid-liquid interface appeared to be planar at all growth rates although no attempt was made to confirm this by decantation or quenching. A few ingots were allowed to freeze uncontrolled. Most alloys were of the nominal eutectic composition, 3.0 wt pct Mg according to Hansen2 and lliott, but some contained as much as 3.35 wt pct Mg. Chemical analyses were not run since metallographic examination confirmed that the desired composition was achieved. Specimens were cut from the middle portion of the ingot normal to the growth axis, polished mechanically, and etched with 2 pct Nital. Suitable areas were selected for the determination of crystallographic orientation relationships by a tiontechniqueof described previously by one of the authors.4 The (2310) planes of zinc and the (8701, {944}? (1032) planes of Mg2Znll were found suitable for orientation determination; experimental error was on the order of 2 or 3 deg. RESULTS Three different morphologies were found in the unidirectionally solidified alloys: lamellar eutectic, rod-like eutectic, and a structure whose most predominant characteristic was the presence of three-vaned (cellular) dendrites of Mg2Znll. These dendrites were only found in alloys with more than the eutectic amount of magnesium. In some ingots fine hexagonal needles of Mg2Znll surrounding a core of MgZn2 were observed. They were probably due to incomplete alloying and seemed to have no effect on the eutectic morphology. In addition hexagonal spirals like those discussed by Fullman and wood5 and Hunt and acksonh ere observed in some ingots frozen without directional control. Both MgZZn,, and MgZnz were detected by X-ray diffraction in these alloys. Since the morphology could not be grown unidirectionally and no characteristic orientation relationship between the phases was found, further study was limited to the lamellar: rodlike, and three-vaned dendrite morphologies. Alloys of Eutectic Composition, No Dendrites. The mcrostructures of allovs with no three-vaned dendrites were either lamellar or rodlike depending on the growth rate. At rates below 10 cm per hr the morphology was lamellar, consisting of two sets of parallel plates intersecting at about 54 deg like the Mg-MgzSn eutectic described by raft.7 At growth rates faster than 14 cm per hr the microstructure showed rods of zinc in a matrix of MgnZnll, while intermediate rates yielded mixtures of rods and lamellae in small groups. The lamellar "grains" were often several millimeters in cross section, but contained small irregular areas which divided each grain into perfect islands 100 or 200 p in diam. Lamellae were parallel to each other throughout the grain in spite of these defects in the structure, Fig. 1. Rods, on the other hand, could only be produced in small groups arranged like fish scales and separated by irregular areas of appreciable thickness, Fig. 2. Alloys Not of Eutectic Composition, With Dendrites. In alloys with 3.1 to 3.35 wt pct ME,-. three-vaned dendrites bf MgzZnll were usually found surrounded by eutectic. At growth rates slower than about 10 cm per hr the dendrites were separated from each other by small areas of both lamellar and rod eutectic, Fig. 3.

Jan 1, 1969

By F. F. Craig

Many full-scale waterflooding operations are preceded by pilot floods, one purpose of which is to provide an estimate of recoverable oil. A laboratory model study was made to determine the influence of the producing wells' effective productivity on the oil recovery efficiency of single five-spot pilots, as well as single injection well pilot floods. The effective productivity is indicated by the value of Condition Ratio, defined as the actual well productivity to that of on undamaged and non-stimulated, normal-sized well in the same formation. The effects of initial gas satrcration and mubility ratio on recovery eficiency were also investigated in this model study. Model test results skowed that at favorable mobiliry ratios, a five-spot pilot flood can provide a direct quantitative estimate of the recoverable oil in the pilot area. If the pilot producer's Candition Ratio is 2.2 or more, upwards of 90 per cent of the recoverable oil in the pilot area is recovered from the inside producer, regqrdless of the mobility ratio or initial gas saturation. This Condition Ratio can be achieved with preyent fracturing techniques. Model studies also showed that over the range of imposed injection pressure differences and regional pressure gradients normally encountered in field operations, there was no effect on the recovery efficiency of a five-spot pilot waterflood. Model studies of single injection well pilot waterfloods showed that with no initial gas saturation, the total oil recovery at the offset producing wells can indicate the oil recovery possible by full-scale waterflooding. It is essential that the Condition Ratios of the offset wells be above 1.4. If an initial gas saturation exists prior to water injection, the recoverable oil cannot be directly evaluated by a single injection well pilot flood. However, the production per formance of such a flood can be used to provide information on volumetric sweep efficiency. INTRODUCTION Oil reservoirs are conlplex structures and cannot always be fully studied in the laboratory. Therefore, many operators consider it prudent to evaluate a waterflood prospect by means of a pilot flood. Pilot waterfloods generally involve one of two well arrangements: a single five-spot pilot waterflood, involving four injectors and an internal pilot producing well; and a single injection well pilot flood (sometimes called an inverted five-spot pilot) having one injector and four sur- rounding pilot producers. Some pilot floods are composed of multiple five-spot pilot patterns. To yield information applicable to field-wide performance, the pilot must be located in a representative portion of the reservoir. Pilot floods generally are conducted for one or more of the following reasons: (1) to determine whether water could be injected at desirably high rates, (2) to determine whether an oil bank or zone of increased oil saturation is formed by water injection, and (3) to estimate the oil recovery by waterflooding. Many of the early pilot water-floods were conducted for only the first two reasons. As soon as a buzz in oil production was obtained in the pilot, water injection was initiated throughout the entire lease or field. A number ot laboratory studies have been directed toward determining conditions under which a pilot flood could yield a quantitative estimate of the oil recovery possible by full-scale pattern flooding. One of the early studies of single five-spot pilot flooding' showed that well damage to the inside pilot producer could reduce the total amount of oil recovered. In a study of the single injection well pilot flood pattern,' the results indicated that if the model boundaries were no closer than a half-well spacing beyond the pilot pattern, the pilot performance in the laboratory is unaffected by these boundaries. In another study,? he effect of initial gas saturation and mobility ratio on the ratio of production to injection rate for various groupings of five-spot patterns was defined by mathematical and analog methods. In a study4 involving both potentiometric and flow model experiments at a mobiliry ratio of unity, four different pilot patterns were studied. These included a single five-spot, a single injection well pilot, a cluster of four single injection well pilots and six inverted five-spots. In this study the ratio of well diameter to the distance between injection and producing wells was held constant at 1:1000. The effect of the 7 ratio-—the ratio of the pressure drawdown at the producing wells to the pressure build-up at the injection wells on the pilot performance-was studied. The values of 7 ratio ranged from 0 to 0.34. Results showed that both the total oil recovery and the total fluid production from the pilot relative to the cumulative injection increased with increasing values of the 7 ratio. The effect of both the ratio of injection to producing rates and mobility ratio on the oil recovery performance of a liquid-saturated single five-spot pilot flood was studied in a series of flow model tests.5 Rate ratios ranged from one to four, and mobility rates ranged from 0.1 to 10. Resulls of these tests showed that at low rate ratios, the pilot producers may recover up to four times the recover-

Jan 1, 1966

By T. F. Bower, M. C. Flemings

Results are reported of a study of surface dendrilic structure of an Al- Cu alloy solidified against a chill wall. Most primary and secondary "arms " in the surface dendritic structure are arranged orthogonally, giving the impression of strong preferred orientalion on the surface. However, no such preferred orientation exists and it is therefore evident the arms do not represent (100) directions. The primary arms are shown to be interseclions of a (100) plane wilh the chill plane, or, equally often. the projeclion of a (100) direction on the chill plane. Secondary dendrite arms are usually within a few degrees of 90 deg to the primary arm, independent of grain orientalion. Prirary, secondary, and higher-order surface dendrite arms almost always represenl intersections of (100) platzes with the chill surace, or pvojections of (100) direclions. Growlh of secondary arms is favored on the side of the primary arm where a (100) direclion points toward the chill surfAce a1 a Lou, angle. Surface dendrile arms are often observed to be bent. In these cases, the crystal lallice changes orientation; bending is concave to the chill surface. In a previous paper,' a technique was discussed whereby large grains can be obtained at a chill surface. The technique used involves quickly drawing superheated liquid A1-4.5 pct Cu alloy into a thin copper mold, so that the mold is full well before solidification begins. The chill surfaces employed are polished copper blocks coated with amorphous carbon. Shrinkage during solidification between dendrite arms and grains delineates both, without the need for polishing or etching of the cast surface. The grain structure of the chill surface was discussed in a previous paper;' in this paper, the dendrite arms within each grain are examined. Previous work on surface dendrites includes that of Edmunds, who studied the development of preferred orientation in zinc, cadmium, and magnesium.' In zinc and cadmium, he found that the surface region has a (0001) texture (parallel to the chill surface). Walton and Chalmers reasoned that, since the fast growth (1010) directions are in the basal plane, nuclei which have this plane parallel to the mold wall would produce larger grains than nuclei with other orientations. Hence, the texture observed is as expected.3 The same authors, in measurements on aluminum ingots, found no preferred orientation at the mold wall. However, the X-ray technique they used measured the preferred orientation in terms of grain numbers, not grain areas; larger grains were weighted equally with small ones. No preferred orientation is expected on this basis at the chill surface. In a later paper,' Edmunds stated that experiments show a random grain orientation at the surface in die cast aluminum; his technique, also used in his earlier paper, takes account of grain area. Little work has been published on the dendritic structure of metal chill grains. Recent work of Biloni and Chalmers on "predendritic growth" shows the change in morphology from spherical to dendritic during the initial stages of freezing, 5 but this work did not include detailed examination of the fully developed dendrites. Other pertinent work includes that of Lin-denmeyer, who investigated the growth of ice dendrites. 6 When growth was on a substrate, the dendrite axes were bent. The bend corresponded to a change in orientation of the crystal lattice and occurred in such a way as to align the basal plane to the substrate. DENDRITE STRUCTURE Fig. 1 shows the chill surface of a typical casting poured above the critical temperature necessary to produce coarse grains. A cursory examination of these grains shows that the surface dendrite arms within most of the grains are oriented roughly perpendicular to each other. One is tempted to assume that these are (100) directions and that, therefore, marked preferred orientation exists at the chill face. This, however, is not the case. Each of the grains in the casting of Fig. 1 was separately identified, Fig. 2, and its orientation determined by the Laue back-reflect ion method. Results are given in Fig. 3 and it is seen there that no preferred orientation exists. Even when grain area is accounted for, there is no significant preferred orientation. The relationship between surface grain structure and crystal orientation was then obtained by assigning X and Y axes to the casting surface, Fig. 1, and assigning the same axes to the stereographic projections of each grain. Thus, the visible surface structure could be compared readily with grain orientation. This was done for fifty-five of the grains of Fig. 1. Results of this study on three typical grains are described below, and some general observations given subsequently. Fig. 4 shows the structure and stereographic projection of a grain which lies near the (100) zone (with respect to the casting surface). The X and Y directions are marked on the projection, and the photomicrograph mounted with the same orientation. Poles of the stereographic projection represent crys-tallographic directions in the grain which point out of the casting, toward the chill. Two (100) directions are shown in Fig. 4. A line joining the center of the projection and a pole represents the projection of the pole onto the X-Y plane (chill surface). Two such lines are shown in Fig. 4 (solid lines). A line joining the intersection of a great circle with the circumference of the projection gives the trace of a crystallo-graphic plane in the chill surface; two such traces are shown (dashed lines).

Jan 1, 1968

By J. C. Williams, M. J. Blackburn

Several of the decomposition processes that can occur in supersaturated phases in a Ti:11.6 wt pct Mo and a Ti:20 wt pct V alloy have been studied by transmission electron microscopy. The deformation induced "marternsitic phase" in the Ti:Mo alloy has been found to have a bcc or bct structure rather than the previously reported hexagonal structure. The morphology of&apos; the transformed region is a rather complex asserrlblage of twins, twinning occurring in one or more systems; this internal twinning has been found to occur on (112). The w phase is formed in both alloys on aging and is present in the Ti:Mo alloy after quenching. The structure of this phase has been confirmed as hexagonal in both systems, however, differences in morphology and stability are found between the two alloys. Thus in the Ti-Mo alloy the w phase has an ellipsoidal morphology with the major axis lying parallel to <111>ß or [0001]w while in the Ti-V alloy the phase forms as cubes, the cube faces lying parallel to {100}ß or {2021}w Some observations on the particle sizes, volume fraction, and composition of the w phase in the Ti-Mo alloy are listed. The mode of formation of The a phase from the (ß + w) structures is also different in the two alloys. In the Ti-Mo alloy the a phase is formed by either a cellular reaction or by the growth of isolated needles, whereas in the Ti-V alloy the a phase is nucleated at an w:ß interface and grow to consume the w phase. Some of the difjerences in behavior of the w phase are attributed to the mismatch between it and the solute enriched ß matrix in which it forms. MaNY transition elements tend to stabilize the bcc or ß-phase when added to titanium. In general two types of phase diagrams are produced, either a ß-stabilized (ß-isomorphous) system, e.g., Ti:Mo, -Ti:V, Ti:Nb, or a ß-eutectoid system, e.g., Ti:Cr, Ti:Fe, Ti:Mn. In previous papers&apos;-4 the phase transformations in the a-phase and (a + ß)-phase alloys have been described and this work has been extended to ß-stabilized systems. Specifically, transformations in the alloys Ti:20 wt pct V and Ti:11.6 wt pct Mo have been studied; in both of these alloys the ß phase is retained at room temperature when quenched from the ß-phase field. A number of phase transformations can occur in such metastable ß phases and the two alloys were chosen to include most of the transformations reported for ß-stabilized systems. We list these possible phase transformations below. Ti:11.6 Mo quenched from >780°C to retain the ß phase: a) The w phase can form on quenching.5 b) Martensite can be produced by subzero cooling or deformation. Two martensite habit planes have been reported in Ti:Mo alloys; (334)ß and (344)ß=6 c) On aging at temperatures <-550° C the w phase is formed before the a-phase.5,7 d) On aging at temperatures >550°C the a phase is formed.7 e) The martensite can be tempered. It has been reported that the a phase rather than the ß phase is precipitated during tempering.&apos; Ti:20V quenched from >660°C to retain the ß phase:9 a) At aging temperatures <260°C separation into two bcc phases occurs. b) The w-phase is produced prior to the a phase on aging at temperatures <-400°C. c) At temperatures 2400°C the a phase is formed directly. T-T-T diagrams describing the temperature and time regimes for the formation of these phases have been published7,9 for a Ti:12 pct Mo and a Ti:20 pct V alloy. We have attempted to investigate these transformations using transmission electron microscopy, however thin foils undergo a spontaneous transformation in all conditions except the equilibrium (a + ß) structure. This transformation has been reported previ0usly10,11 and we will comment on its morphology and nature in the various sections of experimental results. EXPERIMENTAL The compositions in wt pct of the two alloys investigated were: Ti:11.6 Mo, 0.100 02, 0.006 N2, 0.0015 H2 Ti:20V, 0.0574 O2, 0.0111 N2, 0.005 H2 These alloys were cold-rolled to 0.020 in. thick sheet. Specimens were heat treated in vacuum or in inert gas at temperatures >500°C and in a circulating air furnace at temperatures <500°C. Thin foils were prepared using standard techniques, described in detail previously." Dark field micrographs were obtained using high resolution technique. RESULTS Martensitic Transformation in Ti:11.6 pct Mo. Detailed study of the deformation induced martensite is not possible due to a spontaneous transformation which occurs near the edge of thin foils as shown in Fig. 1. Similar transformations have been observed in iron-" and copper-base13 alloys as well as other titanium alloys, but some observations specific to the Ti:1l.6 Mo alloy are listed below. a) The boundaries of these transformed regions are glissile and move under the influence of the electron beam during examination. b) Selected area diffraction indicates the transformed regions have the same structure as the matrix, being separated by tilt boundaries. The misori-

Jan 1, 1969

By A. Henry

THE manufacture of wheels of metal for locomotives and cars constitutes an important branch of the iron industry, and one closely related, moreover, to many of the conditions of railway practice, such as speed, safety of passengers, and economy of working. It has been, also, since the introduction of iron roads, a subject of constant study on the part both of engineers of construction and iron manufacturers. The car-wheels at first used in Europe had spokes of wrought iron and a hub of cast iron. Subsequently endeavors were made to make the wheels entirely of wrought iron, by forging successively the different parts which constituted the hub, spokes, and rim. By this treatment the expansion of the heated portions at the last forgings gave rise to interior ruptures in the already cold and finished parts. The metal was thus strained before use, and the wheels broke frequently in service. It was in consequence of these failures, doubtless, that the engineers of this country were led to employ exclusively wheels of cast iron. The railway companies are nevertheless greatly interested in the reduction of the weight of rolling stock, while preserving abundant strength, and by the employment of wrought-iron wheels one may attain this double end if the defects of manufacture which we have just mentioned are avoided. This may be accomplished by making the wheels in such a manner that the different parts are welded at the same time, whereby the interior strains which so frequently give rise to ruptures in wheels successively forged are avoided. This result has been attained by what is known in France as the Arbel process, of which I will give you a short description if you will kindly give me a few minutes&apos; attention. The process may be briefly summed up as follows : A pile of puddled bars of the general form of the wheel to be made is prepared,

Jan 1, 1877

By Adolph Henry

The manufacture of wheels of metal for locomotives and cars constitutes an important branch of the iron industry, and one closely related, moreover, to many of the conditions of railway practice, such as speed, safety of passengers, and economy of working. It has been, also, since the introduction of iron roads, a subject of constant study on the part both of engineers of construction and iron manufacturers. The car-wheels at first used in Europe had spokes of wrought iron and a hub of cast iron. Subsequently endeavors were made to make the wheels entirely of wrought iron, by forging successively the different parts which constituted the hub, spokes, and rim. By this treatment the expansion of the heated portions at the last forgings gave rise to interior ruptures in the already cold and finished parts. The metal was thus strained before use, and the wheels broke frequently in service. It was in consequence of these failures, doubtless, that the engineers of this country were led to employ exclusively wheels of cast iron. The railway companies are nevertheless greatly interested in the reduction of the weight of rolling stock, while preserving abundant, strength, and by the employment of wroughtiron wheels one may attain this double end if the defects of manufacture which we have just mentioned are avoided. This may be accomplished by making the wheels in such a manner that the different parts are welded at the same time, whereby the interior strains which so frequently give rise to ruptures in wheels successively forged are avoided. This result has been attained by what is known in France as the Arbel process, of which I will give you a short description if you will kindly give me a few minutes&apos; attention. The process may be briefly summed up as follows: A pile of puddled bars of the general form of the wheel to be made is prepared,

The Johns Hopkins Press, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md The Johns Hopkins Press has issued a number of books as The Johns Hopkins University Studies in Geology Five of the studies are paleontological in character; five are on geology: No. 1, The geology of the Corocoro copper district of Bolivia, by J. T Singewald, Jr and E W. Berry, $1 50, 2, The geology and paleontology of the Huancavehca mercury district, by E W Berry and J T Singewald, Jr $1 50, 6, Contributions to the geology and paleontology of South America, by E W. Berry and F M Swartz, 3175, 7, The geology of the Island of Trinidad, B W I, by G A Waring, with notes on the paleontology by G. D Harris, $1 75, 8, Fifty years&apos; progress in geology, 1876-1926 Papers presented at the Geological Conference during the 50th Anniversary of the Johns Hopkins University, $1 50 An additional publication on geology is. Notes on the minerals occurring in the neighborhood of Baltimore, by G H Williams, 25 cents. In the list of Doctors&apos; Dissertations available from the University are found all theses on geology and mineralogy, about 90 in number, from 1886 on Authors of many of these have since made great names for themselves in the fields of geology and mineralogy. Most of the theses have been published as papers by other agencies and, as such, will be found under other headings in this directory

Jan 1, 1933

A High-speed Dilatometer and the Transformational Behavior of Six Steels in Cooling. By Arthur L. Christenson, Edward C. Nelson and Clarence E. Jackson. (With discussion).................................606 Dilatometric Studies of the Graphitization of Cast Iron. By N. A. Ziegler. With discussion) 627 An Interferometer Type of Dilatometer and Some Typical Results. By- L. &apos;4. WIlley and W. L. Fink. (With discussion).........................642 The meeting was held in the Pine Room of the Statler Hotel, Cleveland, Ohio, on Tuesday afternoon, October 17, 1944. The chairmen were F. M. Walters, Jr. and Howard Scott. Introduction F. M. Walters, Jr.—The principal advantages of the dilatometric method perhaps are two, as compared with the method of thermal analysis. One is that the dilatometric method can be applied with a large variety of rates of heating and cooling, whereas thermal analysis—that is, the study of the transformational characteristics by means of heat evolution—is limited to the rates of heating and cooling that reveal the evolution of heat. The dilatometer can be used for the study Of reactions at zero rates of heating and cooling; that is, isothermal reactions. As you will hear this afternoon, the rates have been pushed up as far as 500°C. a second. The other advantage is that the dilatometric method shows that a two-phase region is a two-phase region, whereas the thermal analysis merely reveals the temperature at which the rates of heat evolution are greatest.

Jan 1, 1945

Colorado Geological Survey, Boulder, Colo. R D George, State Geologist. The following publications of the Survey may be obtained as long as the supply lasts, at the indicated price. Bulletin 3, Geology and ore deposits of the Alma district (1910), 25 cents, 4, Geology and ore deposits of the Monarch and Tomichi districts, Chaffee and Gunnison counties (1912), can be had together with 5, pt 1, Geology of the Rabbit Ears region and pt. 2, Permian or " Permo-Carbonif erous " of the Eastern Foothills of the Rocky Mountains in Colorado, for 50 cents; 7, Bibliography of Colorado geology and mining literature (1914), 25 cents, 8, The clays of eastern Colorado (1915), 25 cents, 9, Geology and ore deposits of Bonanza district (1915), 25 cents, 10, Geology and ore deposits of Gold Brick district (1916), 25 cents, 13, Geology and ore deposits of the Platoro-Summitville district (1917), 25 cents; 14, Molybdenum deposits of Colorado (1919), 25 cents; 15, Manganese deposits of Colorado (1919), 25 cents (14 and 15 in one volume, 35 cents); 17, Twin Lakes district (1921), 25 cents. Bulletin 18, Fluorspar deposits of Colorado (1920), 25 cents, 21, The geology of the Ward region, Boulder County (1921), 50 cents, 22, Mineral deposits of the Western Slope (1921), 25 cents, 24, Some anticlines of western Colorado (1924), 50 cents; 27 (in three parts) pt 3, Geology of parts of Las Animas, Otero and

Jan 1, 1933

The following communication was recently sent President Wilson by J. Parke Channing, Chairman of the Engineering Council: The transportation systems of our country are largely the creations of its professional Engineers. This statement can be made without disparagement to the statesmen, the financiers, the manufacturers, the lawers, the educators, the mechanics, the laborers and many others, who, with the Engineers, have contributed to the development of transportation. Through all stages of preliminary exploration, final survey, construction, upkeep and operation, in financial management, and in adjustment of the relations of transportation to the public, the genius and knowledge of the Engineer are essential. Not only in technical physical matters, but also in determinations of policy, his contributions have supplemented and must ever supplement those of other men. These declarations hold good for all the carriers of commerce, by rail, by highway, by water, by pipe-line, by wire, or by air. Hence, it follows that the body established by Government to regulate the commerce, the carriers and the ways of communication, embracing so many engineering features, should number among its nine members, men of engineering training and experience. Engineering Council, being aware of a vacancy on the Interstate Commerce Commission, begs leave to request the Chief Executive that in filling this vacancy, he give earnest thought to the selection of a man who, to his other qualifications, adds the training and experience of an engineer familiar with transportation problems.

Jan 9, 1919

By Charles E. Wait

IN order to secure cupels uniform in size, density, etc., I have arranged a machine which has proved quite satisfactory, and is so simple and inexpensive as to be within the reach of nearly everyone. It has been in operation here about four years, and with it all cupels used in the assay department of the School of Mines have been made. As shown in the accompanying figure, it consists of a common letter-press, the movable platen of which has been removed. In place of the plate, there is attached to the screw a plunger, which turns with the screw, moving up and down, and making the depression in the cupel. The ring holding the bone-ash is held in place directly underneath the plunger by a wooden guide fastened to the base of the press. There is also fastened to the top of the guide for the ring, at a distance above the base of the press equal to the height of the cupel-ring, a piece of mood about § inch thick, under which the ring will just slide into place, and through which there is cut a circular hole exactly fitting the plunger, guiding it in its downward movement always in the same vertical line; this last guide not only directs the plunger, but also prevents the lifting of the ring by the plunger, upon the raising of the latter.

Jan 1, 1886

By Henry M. Howe

HENRY M. Howe, Bedford Hills, N. Y. (communication to the Secretary.) +-Mr. Johnson&apos;s explanation, that the rounding of the graphite masses in oxygen-bearing cast iron is clue to their being in part re-precipitated after re-solution in forming carbonic oxide temporarily with that oxygen, is certainly most attractive and suggestive. It remains to be shown whether this rounding occurs also when &apos;the solidiification is too rapid to permit this process to goon. J. E. Johnson Might easily test this by casting a single ladleful of his oxygenated iron in masses of varying size. If&apos; this present hypothesis is true, then the rounding ought to increase progressively with the size of the casting, and with the distance from the outside, that is to say with the time available for re-solution and re-precipitation. I question whether a like benefit is to be expected even on this hypothesis, from the oxygenation of steel. The spheroidizing of graphite does good because graphite itself is so weak. But the constituent which can be spheroidized in steel is its cementite, which is a source of strength. Lamellar pearlite, in which this cementite in effect forms long dendrites, is far stronger than divorced pearlite, in which these dendrites have been broken up into spheroids. Even the surfaces of contact between ferrite and cementite are probably sources of strength because of the amorphous iron which probably fills them.

Jan 1, 1917

By Emile Hiertz

THE first press was installed in June, 1910, and the second in March,1911. They produce 1,000 briquettes per hour, weighing 5 kg. (11.05 1b.) each, under a pressure of about 400 kg. per square centimeter (5,689.2 lb. per square inch). The chloride of magnesium is received from the potash mines at Hanover in tank cars in approximately a 35 per cent. solution. The quantity of solution added to the flue dust varies between 2 and 3 per cent., so that the briquettes contain about 1 per cent of MgCl2. To fresh dust as much as 10 per cent. of coke breeze may be added and bri¬quettes made that still have a crushing strength of from 25 to 30 kg. (377 to 426.6 lb. per square inch) after 36 hr., and 45 kg. (639.9 lb. per square inch) after six days. After having treated 140,000 tons of the material, the reports of the blast furnaces show that the briquettes improved the action of a furnace and produced less dust than did Minette ore. As much as 35 per cent. of briquettes is added to the furnace charge without bad effects on operations. The presence of chlorine did not produce any corrosion in the furnace, downtakes or other piping. The presence of a certain amount of chlorine in the dust reduces the amount of chloride of magnesium which it is necessary to add for briquetting.

Jan 12, 1913

By N. W. Lord

Having recently had occasion to make a series of analyses of fire-clays for the present Ohio Geological Survey, I found that the amounts of potash and soda determined indirectly by measuring the chlorides volumetrically did not " check " with those obtained directly. Investigation with the spectroscope showed the presence of lithia in what seemed very appreciable quantities. The examination was made of a considerable number of samples, and in every case this element was found, though in varying amounts, as judged by the intensity of the spectrum. To guard against error from the impurity of reagents, the whole process was repeated, using the same reagents in corresponding amounts, but leaving ont the clay. In no case did these " blanks" show lithia; hence the presence of this element in the clays seemed to be established conclusively. In the same series of analyses, titanic acid, in amounts varying from three-tenths to nearly two per cent., was found. The presence of titanium was first observed in the Ohio clays, nearly three years ago, in the examination of clays from Logan. The occurrence of this element is, of course, not unusual in clay, but I believe that none of the published analyses of Ohio clays give it; certainly none of the former Ohio geological reports speak of its presence. The following analyses show both the above ingredients. They were made during the summer of 1883.

Jan 1, 1884

From L. K. Armstrong, Secretary of the Columbia Section of the Institute, we have received information as to the activities and plan of the Spokane Engineering and Technical Association, which was recently organized under the joint auspices of the local sections of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, the American Society of Civil Engineers, and our own Institute. The first meeting was held on September 20, at which a program for the following year was adopted. The, meeting was then conducted by the Civil Engineers., the principal business being the reading of a report by Mr. Flinn, Secretary of the United Engineering Society. The second meeting was held on October 18, of which the Columbia, Section of our Institute took charge. According to the program adopted, meetings will be held regularly on the third Friday of each month, except June, July and August. It is understood that these meetings shall not interfere with nor abridge the independent activity of the participating societies. The proposed work of the Association is to be conducted by a large number of committees, whose attention will be devoted to such subjects as the following: Municipal, Highways, Resources, Manufacture and Industries, Legislative, Educational, National and State, Patents and Inventions, Americanization, Safety and Rehabilitation, Research, Emergency. When all of these committees shall have been filled, and their work begun, it is expected that the engineers of Spokane and vicinity may take a more active part in things affecting human welfare in that vicinity.

Jan 11, 1918