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By Nathaniel Arbiter, Arthur F. Taggart

The fact that the floatability of minerals with fatty-acid collectors changes as the pH of a pulp varies was utilized in the early days of flotation, when sulphuric acid was used with oleic acid to float sphalerite and galena. from gangues which themselves float with fatty acids in alkaline pulps. Gaudin1 showed that this difference in floatability is a regular function of the extent of the change in pH. The present paper offers an explanation of the phenomenon, and on the basis thereof sets up recommendations for control of soap-flotation operations. Experimental Parallelism between floatability of a mineral in a given environment and its contact angle in that environment is so well established,2 and the contact angle is so readily and rapidly measurable, that contact angles have been used throughout the experimental work to indicate relative floatability. Experiments comprised contact-angle measurements on a number of representative minerals and metals, and a variety of subsidiary tests designed to check and to amplify the contact-angle indications. Contact-angle measurements were made by the method described in detail by del Giudice.3 Sequence of procedure for determination of the points of Fig. I was: I. Polish specimen. Most specimens yielded zero contact angle after polishing; a few showed a slight "cling." Cling is characteristic of specimens that pit on polishing; it is due to a residue of organic contamination, originally on the particle surface, which persists in the pits. The cling did not change total contact angle after conditioning, and is not, therefore, additive in the upper part of the curves of Fig. I. It may have broadened the bases of the curves for the affected minerals slightly. 2. The specimen was next conditioned in soap solution for 5 minutes. 3. The conditioned particle was transferred, under conditions that precluded surface drying, to an aqueous solution of the pH desired and contact angle determined. 4. The particle was thereupon transferred, again without surface drying, to water. The confirmatory tests will be described at the places pertinent in the argument. Discussion of Results Gaudin and Vincent4 have shown that contact angles with heptoic acid as a collector decrease for a given specimen when the concentration of collector present falls below a certain value. A similar reduction in angle occurs with collector-conditioned particles that are visibly slime-coated, and varies roughly with the extent of coating. Since in the last case the reduction in angle is certainly due to reduction in the proportion of total conditioned mineral surface presented to the bubble, the authors believe that the same condition prevails in the first case cited, and that similar reduction in angle and floatability will occur whenever starvation quantities of collector are present, whether by design or by reason of excessive consumption.

Jan 1, 1943

By R. P. Carreker, J. G. Leschen, J. H. Hollomon

THE external appearance of a crystal which has undergone plastic flow suggests that adjacent blocks of the crystal have glided bodily past one another along the slip planes. However, the great discrepancy between the shear stresses calculated to effect such a movement and those actually observed has for many years stimulated searches for more satisfactory interpretations of the slip process. Appreciable success in these efforts has been realized by assuming the presence in the crystal of various sorts of imperfections and by considering the consequences of the presence of these flaws when stress is externally applied, The theory that has received the most attention recently-that of dislocations-postulates the occurrence of small, mobile imperfections or dislocations which move through the crystal along the slip direction, each dislocation being attended by a local shear displacement of one interatomic distance. Thus only that portion of the crystal through which the dislocation has passed may be said to have slipped, Since each dislocation produces a displacement of only one interatomic distance, an avalanche or train of many dislocations would be necessary to account for the observed displacements of several hundred or thousand interatomic distances. The salient point of the theory of dislocations is the concept that a slip band does not suddenly appear in its entirety. On the contrary, it grows progressively across the slip plane as the individual dislocations successively appear and advance in a train through the crystal. However, the concept of growth is not intrinsic only to the theory of dislocations, since atomistic mechanisms other than that postulated by the dislocation theory can quite probably also describe the growth of a slip band. For instance, a slip band might resemble a disc-like interface that appeared and then grew continuously from a small size, producing a displacement that increased with the size of the disc, Whatever the precise mechanism, the concept of growth is in itself consistent both with -the observed low values of critical shear stress and with the experimental observation that slip bands. frequently do not traverse the entire crystal. The likelihood that slip bands grow implies that they must first be nucleated and that the initiation of slip can therefore be analyzed in terms of the general concepts of nucleation. Indeed, this suggestion was advanced1 several years ago, but the matter does not appear to have been further pursued. Recent advances in the theory of nucleations2,3,4 have encouraged such a treatment of the slip process. As will presently be demonstrated, this approach to the problem not only accounts successfully for the incubation periods that have been observed5,6 to precede slip but also predicts certain transient effects in the deformation process, The existence of these transients apparently has not hitherto

Jan 1, 1948

By J. L. Taylor, P. Duwez

PARTIAL phase diagrams of titanium with iron, cobalt, and nickel have been established by previous investigators.1-3 These diagrams seem to be reliable, at least for concentrations of titanium ranging from 0 to about 50 at. pct. More recently, Long and his collaborators have presented a tentative titanium-nickel diagram covering the titanium-rich side.' These various studies indicate that in each system three intermediate phases exist and correspond to the compositions Tia, TiX, and TiX2 (or TiX3). The purpose of this paper is to review the available information on the crystal structure of these phases and to give the results of additional X-ray diffraction studies. Previous Work A summary of the work of Wallbaum and his collaborators"-' is presented in table I. The first intermediate phase on the titanium-rich side of the three systems, with iron, cobalt, and nickel, is of the Ti2X type and has a face-centered cubic structure. Although it is stated that the unit cell contains 96 atoms: no lattice parameters are given. The second phase is centered around the compositions TiX for the three systems. The crystal structure of this phase is mentioned in a short note" as being body-centered cubic (CsCl type), but no parameters are given. The analogy between the three systems, which is perfect as far as the two phases of the type Ti2X and TiX are concerned, disappears at the titanium-poor end of the diagrams. In the system titanium- iron, TiFe2 has an hexagonal (MgZn2 type) struc-ture with the parameters given in table I. The existence of TiFe3 has also been reported8 (table I) but was questioned by other investigators2 and is also refuted by the present study. In the system titanium-cobalt, a phase corre-sponding to the composition TiCo2 has been investi-gated by Wallbaum and Witte6 who claim that the structure is cubic (MgCu2 type) for alloys slightly deficient in cobalt and hexagonal (MgNi2 type) for alloys slightly deficient in titanium. The parameters of the two phases are given in table I. In the system titanium-nickel, the nickel-rich phase corresponds to the composition TiNi3 and has been described as hexagonal7 with the parameters given in table I. The present investigation was initiated for the purpose of filling in the gaps in the knowledge con-cerning the structure of the various phases sum-marized in table I. Since the titanium used by Wallbaum and his collaborators was only 95 pct pure,' it was found desirable to redetermine the lattice parameters of the alloys prepared with a

Jan 1, 1951

By E. H. Kelton, R. D. Grissinger

In designing structural members of steel and some other materials the design engineer has available recognized values of elastic modulus and safe working stress that may be substituted in well-known engineering formulas to give him desired cross-sectional areas and deflections for a particular part. Zinc, on the other hand, has no generally recognized modulus. It flows under continuously applied loads. Therefore, the designer of structural members must use a range of working stresses depending on the continuous load and the amount of permissible distortion. The only method of obtaining these values is by creep testing. Creep testing of zinc has been carried on for some 20 years by this laboratory, covering a wide range of zinc and zinc alloys. Types of test included tension, compression, and simple and cantilever beams at temperatures ranging from o to I50°C. Specimen conditions ranged from as-cast or as-rolled to accelerated aged in steam or dry air. Effects of plating were investigated also. It is not the intention of this paper to expound all these factors but rather to present the final data on well-known zinc die-casting alloys and to suggest means of applying these data to engineering design. Early Work In the early work on creep testing of zinc, the direct-loading tension method was used. However, direct loading of die castings was unsatisfactory because of the high loads required. For instance, a standard die-cast tension bar having a cross-sectional area of about 0.049 sq. in. would require a direct load of about 1000 lb. for a unit stress of 20,000 lb. per sq. in. Also, tests were made at nominal room temperature, but normal variations caused fluctuations greater than those due to experimental error or other causes, so that control of this variable within ±1/2°C. seemed essential. These two factors led to the development of an apparatus described by J. Ruzicka,' in which the specimens were loaded by means of a lever and were held at constant temperature by means of an oil bath. While Ruzicka's apparatus yielded excellent check results, it seemed desirable to have some setup by which literally hundreds of die-cast specimens could be tested at the same time. This would permit the conducting of a number of low-load tests designed to run 10 years or longer and still leave capacity for current high-load work. Beam testing in a constant-temperature room was the answer. Test Method Preliminary work indicated that die-cast beams of various lengths and cross scctions yielded the same result within reasonable limits regardless of whether they were tested as simple beams, uniformly loaded beams, or cantilevers. Accordingly, the simplest type was adopted. This was a,

Jan 1, 1945

By Shiou-Chuan Sun

There are several postulations for the mechanism of slime-coating. Incel proposed the electrostatic hypothesis, del Giudice2 suggested the chemical theory; Bankoff3 reported that slime-coating is inhibited whenever the surfaces of the slime particles are ionized sufficiently for Brownian movement to occur, and is facilitated when they are not. These postulations were examined by experiments involving the Burton tube, the cataphoretic cell, and slime-coating. The techniques involved will be described elsewhere in this paper. The electrostatic hypothesis, supported by migration experiments in a Burton tube, was abandoned by del Giudice.2 Experiments of mineral migration in a Burton tube. after the idea of Ince with modification, indicated that this apparatus was inefficient for accurate observation. A cataphoretic cell was constructed. The experimental data, as shown in this paper, enable the correlation and advancing of this hypothesis. Del Giudice's chemical hypothesis considered that slime particles are attached to the galena surfaces by a cement formed as the result of a metathetical reaction between the sulphide and the slime particles. Applying this hypothesis, the calcite slime particles were cemented to the galena surface by the formation of a cementing lead carbonate. In a similar way, lead silicate was considered as the cement of quartz slime coating on galena. Experiments verifying this hypothesis were carried out according to the following procedure: Fresh mineral particles selected from the central part of the broken lumps and examined first under a microscope for ascertaining a clean surface were placed in a small beaker (1.5-in. dia. by 2.5 in. deep) half filled with one kind of slime pulp. The dilution of all slime pulp was 4:I and the particle size of slime was minus 400-mesh. After agitation for 5 min. the specimen was removed by a sharp-end tong and washed gently three times in three separate distilled water baths. It was dried before a small electrical fan and examined immediately under a microscope. A photograph was made of the observation. With reference to the published solubilities,' several of these experiments, which contradict the chemical hypothesis, are listed as following: I. The coating of fluorite slime on the galena surface was light but the coating of galena slime on the fluorite surface was heavy. In a similar way, the coating of quartz slime on the galena was fairly light, but the coating of galena slime on the quartz particle was heavy. According to the chemical hypothesis, using the same constituents and regardless of which is the slime, the density of the coating should be expected to be the same. This, however, as shown above, is not true. Moreover, fluorite (CaF2), having a solubility of 16 mg.4a per liter of water, should not be

Jan 1, 1943

By Morris Muskat

Analytical calculations have been carried out on the effect of casing perforations on the productivity of wells, and formulas have been derived for general types of perforation patterns. The numerical calculations, however, show that the resultant well productivity is essentially independent of the perforation pattern, but is determined mainly by the total perforation density. Thus, for example, for a density of three perforations per foot of casing, the well productivity will be cut to one third of that of the uncased well for a perforation radius of 1/8 in., and to approximately one half for a perforation radius of 1/4 in., regardless of the detailed manner in which the perforations are distributed over the casing surface. The analytical theory is also extended to include wells completed with slotted liners. It is shown that the reduction in productivity due to such liners will be relatively small as compared with that due to perforated casings. The increasingly important role being played by productivity factors of wells in determining well potentials and in the general evaluation of producing formations lends interest to the analysis of all the various factors that may infuence the productivity of a well. In recent papers1 the results have been given of theoretical studies made to determine the effect on the productivity factor of a well of the gas-oil ratio of the production and the connate water within the sand. These have served to show that both of these factors may, under suitable conditions, materially reduce the effective productivity factors below those that would be anticipated on the assumption that the wells produce homogeneous fluids. In this paper will be presented the results of the analysis of an entirely different factor influencing the productivity of a well. This refers to that resulting from the increased use of the method of completing wells by setting casing opposite all of the productive strata and then gun-perforating the particular zones of immediate interest. The practical success of this method of completion would appear to be an answer to the question as to whether it seriously reduces the well productivity or materially cuts down the ultimate oil recovery that may be derived from the producing section. Nevertheless, it is of interest to examine just how great the effect of the restricted flow channels, represented by the gun perforations, may be in increasing the over-all effective sand resistance. Of course, to the extent that the well potentials are severely restricted by proration regulations, minor reductions in well productivities are even less serious than if the wells were to be allowed to produce wide open. On the other hand, even under these circumstances there may be at least the academic interest in such calculations in being able to correct and evaluate the effect of the perforations in order to carry

Jan 1, 1943

By H. W. Graham

AS these annual occasions in honor of Henry Marion Howe continue through the years: there is progressively less likelihood that the lecturer will have had personal knowledge of Dr. Howe. The present speaker is one of those who unfortunately had no opportunity to come under the inspiring presence of this great metallurgist. A review of Howe's work shows it to cover a comprehensive range of interests and to evidence an impressive richness of detail. Not only was Howe at home in the laboratory, but he was familiar with the processes of iron and steel making and had a real understanding of them. His writings include much that is descriptive of processes with a wealth of material that is becoming of increasing historical value. He recorded his studies of the theoretical aspects of processes and published at least two process classifications, one in 1890 that was lengthy and somewhat theoretical, and a second in 1906 that was more of a practical listing. Wide as Howe's field of interest was, it is significant of the circumstances of his time that he gave- little consideration to raw materials or to their effect on iron and steel making processes. In 1933, Waterhouse, Howe lecturer for that year, presented a descriptive summary of the major steel making processes, and in 1946 Joseph discussed the blast furnace process. Otherwise Howe lectures have not dealt with processes as major subjects. In today's lecture, with no effort to describe the mechanical arrangements of iron and steel making facilities, it is proposed to examine the essential technological elements of the processes, to explore the inter-relation of these elements, and particularly to seek recognition and understanding of those factors which determine why certain processes are or are not used. The discussion of this lecture will deal with the major well-known large tonnage processes, with only such attention to processes of minor tonnage and special character as may be warranted for explanation by contrast. Subject to the errors of generalization and the shortcomings of condensation involved in presentation limited to a single hour, it is proposed to examine broadly but intensively those operations which convert raw materials into steel. It is an innovation for a Howe lecturer to discuss the raw materials of the iron and steel industry, but the changing circumstances of passing years intensify the influence of raw materials on processes and require the metallurgist to be alert for the process adjustments that may become advisable or mandatory. For a half century the metallurgical processing of iron and steel has followed a surprisingly straight path, but this does not necessarily mean that there are no curves in the road ahead. Ages ago primitive man came to know iron in its metallic form, not only by the

Jan 1, 1948

By Morris Muskat

Analytical calculations have been carried out on the effect of casing perforations on the productivity of wells, and formulas have been derived for general types of perforation patterns. The numerical calculations, however, show that the resultant well productivity is essentially independent of the perforation pattern, but is determined mainly by the total perforation density. Thus, for example, for a density of three perforations per foot of casing, the well productivity will be cut to one third of that of the uncased well for a perforation radius of 1/8 in., and to approximately one half for a perforation radius of 1/4 in., regardless of the detailed manner in which the perforations are distributed over the casing surface. The analytical theory is also extended to include wells completed with slotted liners. It is shown that the reduction in productivity due to such liners will be relatively small as compared with that due to perforated casings. The increasingly important role being played by productivity factors of wells in determining well potentials and in the general evaluation of producing formations lends interest to the analysis of all the various factors that may infuence the productivity of a well. In recent papers1 the results have been given of theoretical studies made to determine the effect on the productivity factor of a well of the gas-oil ratio of the production and the connate water within the sand. These have served to show that both of these factors may, under suitable conditions, materially reduce the effective productivity factors below those that would be anticipated on the assumption that the wells produce homogeneous fluids. In this paper will be presented the results of the analysis of an entirely different factor influencing the productivity of a well. This refers to that resulting from the increased use of the method of completing wells by setting casing opposite all of the productive strata and then gun-perforating the particular zones of immediate interest. The practical success of this method of completion would appear to be an answer to the question as to whether it seriously reduces the well productivity or materially cuts down the ultimate oil recovery that may be derived from the producing section. Nevertheless, it is of interest to examine just how great the effect of the restricted flow channels, represented by the gun perforations, may be in increasing the over-all effective sand resistance. Of course, to the extent that the well potentials are severely restricted by proration regulations, minor reductions in well productivities are even less serious than if the wells were to be allowed to produce wide open. On the other hand, even under these circumstances there may be at least the academic interest in such calculations in being able to correct and evaluate the effect of the perforations in order to carry

Jan 1, 1943

By D. P. Morton

SINCE 1023, which closed the speculative era in the bituminous coal fields of the United States, there have been wide annual fluctuations in the national production of bituminous coal. These changes in annual output have been variously attributed to: (I) increased competition from petroleum products, natural gas and hydroelectric power; (2) lower unit consumption of coal; and (3) fluctuations in the general business level. The purpose of this paper is to measure, from a practical standpoint, the net effect upon the annual trend of bituminous coal production, and to give those who are interested a basis for estimating in advance the probable output of bituminous coal. It can readily be shown that changes in the level of general business affect the national production of bituminous coal more than does any other factor. Therefore it is necessary to use some standard measure of the relative business level for purposes of comparison. The Federal Reserve Board Index of Industrial Production offers the basis for such a measure.' This Index, a weighted composite of 81 different series, rests upon the averages of the years 1935 to 1939 as loo, and is presented graphically in Fig. I. Even a cursory examination of the chart will indicate a definite uptrend for industrial production over a period of years. This uptrend is due to at least two factors: (I) an actual increase in national population, and (2) a probable increase in the per capita consumption of goods. This means that there is no such thing as a fixed Normal, rather Normal is a variable, tending to increase from year to year. In order to measure the amount of annual increase in normal, the Index of Industrial Production must be studied in relation to its major components, Durable Goods and Nondurable Goods. Durable Goods are those made from the lasting materials such as iron, steel, other metals, lumber, stone, cement, clay, glass. Nondurable Goods are those for early consumption, such as foods, textiles, tobacco, chemicals, paper, gasoline, and goods made of leather and rubber. The purchase of Durable Goods may be postponed, but Nondurable Goods must be purchased currently unless the standard of living is lowered. The Federal Reserve Indexes of durable and nondurable goods are shown graphically, 1920 to 1939, on Fig. 2 (pp. 764-765 of ref. I). It is apparent that fluctuations in the production of nondurable goods are not nearly so wide as in the production of durable goods, and that the curve of Industrial Production (Fig. I) would fall between the two curves on Fig. 2. It would, however, seem logical that both curves should follow the same long-term trend, or that over a period of two to three decades the relative proportion of durable and nondurable goods, in periods of normal production, should he the same. It is neces-

Jan 1, 1941

By E. D. Gardner

Introduction Oil shale deposits have been exploited in various countries throughout the world, but generally with government aid. The oil-shale industry of Scotland perhaps is the oldest and best-known; the largest was conducted in Manchuria by the Japanese during World war 11 as a source of liquid fuels for military uses. In general, foreign oil-shale deposits that have been exploited are much lower grade than those in the western United States. Considerable interest began to be shown in western oil shales in 1916; the peak of activities was in 1923. The catlin operation, near Elko, Nevada, perhaps was the nearest approach in this country to an oil-shale enterprise on a commercial scale. Over 100 companies were formed, ostensibly for exploiting the oil shale; a large number of them, however, proved to be stock promotions only, which gave the embryo industry a black eye. The Bureau of Mines operated an experi-mental oil-shale retort plant near Rifle, Colorado, from September 1926 to June 1927 and again from April 1928 to July 1929, after which the plant was dismantled. By this time the East Texas oil fields had come ill and the country lost interest in substitute liquid fuels. During World War II the Nation again became concerned about the magnitude of its petroleum reserves. Congress (April 1944) directed the Bureau of Mines to build and operate demonstration plants to produce synthetic liquid fuels from coal, oil shales, and agricultural and other products; a five-year Program was authorized. *' a part of this program the Bureau of Mines has built, at Anvil Points near Rifle, Colorado, a retort plant and develOped an experimental mine to supply the plant with oil shale. An important part of the mining work at Rifle is to devise methods and select practices for mining the oil shale on a commercial scale at the lowest practicable cost. The product to be mined has a relatively low value, a fact that must be kept in in mind. The combined aim of those in charge of the mining and those in charge of retorting is to demonstrate that the shale oil can be produced at a cost per barrel corresponding to the current quotation for crude petroleum —or at least very close to it. Plans call for an uninterrupted flow of broken oil shale from the lace in the mine, through crushers, through the retorts and thence to the disposal dump. The disposal of the spent shale in the Ride area should present no unusual problem. Mining research has consisted so far of Paper studies of the general phases of the probleml determination of the widest Span that the roof Stone will stand safely unsupported, and drilling problems. underground development has not proceeded far

Jan 1, 1949

By A. L. Mular

The flotability of crushed zinc oxide pellets which were doped to produce more n-type or less n-type (more p-type) properties was studied with a Halli-mond tube. Flotation data are presented to show that the pH at which 50% recovery occurs and the collector concentration for 50% recovery depends upon the concentration of doping agent added substitu-tionally for zinc in zinc oxide. The time of sintering of pellets has a slight effect on flotation behavior. A speculative model is proposed to explain the observed behavior in light of the fact that zinc oxide is a semiconductor and has a space charge region at the surface. Experimental verification is necessary before the proposed model can be established as correct. In recent years, the attachment of flotation reagents to minerals has been shown to depend upon the behavior of an electrical double layer which exists in the liquid near the mineral-liquid interface.' Thus, a mineral placed in water will undergo a surface re-arrangement, most likely be preferential dissociation of lattice atoms or by surface adsorp-tion-desorption reactions, to form a dissociation electrical double layer with the solution. Among the many factors which influence adsorption processes, the past history of the mineral itself is one of the most important. Because of trace impurities, minerals from different localities may exhibit marked differences in flotation behavior. This is not unexpected, since investigators who have studied the detailed structure of the double layer's3 have known for some time that the impurity content of many minerals may exert strong influence on double layer variables. For this reason, their studies were usually made with minerals of high purity. The precise relationship between impurities in a mineral and double layer parameters such as capacity and electrostatic potential has been obscure. However, impurities in a semiconductor type mineral which is in contact with a solution have been recently shown to produce changes in the properties of a space charge layer which extends into the bulk of the semiconductor to a distance of one micron or more.4 The double layer is influenced by the space charge layer, whose origin is best discussed in terms of the band theory of solids. A qualitative description of the behavior of impurities in the bulk of a semiconductor, from a chemical point of view, is useful at this point. Briefly, impurities or defects (lattice vacancies, interstitials, etc.) in semiconductors such as PbS, ZnS, FeS2, Cu2S, NiS, NiO, Fe2O3, ZnO, CdS, MnO2 and many others, behave somewhat like acids or bases in water. For example, water dissociates into hydrogen and hydroxyl ions according to

Jan 1, 1965

By W. M. Bertholf

IN 1945 tests were made in the coal washery of the Colorado Fuel and Iron Corporation, at Pueblo, Colo., to determine the value of the Humphreys spiral. So far we have demonstrated that it is of definite value to us in rewashing a portion of our table middlings; and we are fairly certain that this is not necessarily the only place in which it can be used to advantage. Because of manpower and material shortages, experimental work has been discontinued for the present. Three of the spirals are being installed for use in rewashing the middlings, and testing and experimental work will proceed when this installation is completed. All evidence secured so far points to the fact that the spiral can make an effective separation of heavy material below 8-mesh; but that it is ineffective in removing larger, heavy material. This, of course, will limit its use to fine coal or a classified feed containing no heavy material larger than 8-mesh. In considering the results of our tests, it should be noted that the feed was our table middling, and that any real separation of this material is a "moral victory," as there is little material that could be properly called coal and practically no heavy rock, the consequence being that previous attempts to clean the middlings have not been at all successful. Several articles dealing with the spiral and its use in treating heavy minerals have already been published,1 but for the benefit of those who have not seen these we include a brief description of the spiral and of the way it operates, taken from Bulletin 4 of The Humphreys Investment Co.: The Humphreys Spiral Concentrator consists of a spiral conduit of modified semicircular cross section. Ore pulp is fed to the top and, as it flows downward, the heavier particles concentrate in a band along the inner side of the pulp stream (Fig. I). Outlets for removal of products are located at the lowest points in the cross section of the conduit. Wash water, added at the inner edge of the stream, flows outwardly across the concentrate band. The width of concentrate band removed at the outlets is controlled by adjustable splitters. Concentrate is usually removed from the upper portion of the spiral and middling from the lower portion. Tailing is discharged from the lower end. Tests are usually made in closed circuit, since this provides a maximum of information with a minimum amount of sample. Fig. 2 shows the spiral set up for closed-circuit testing, and gives a good idea of the general arrangement of such an installation. The small cyclone separator is used to provide clean wash water without introducing additional water into the circuit.

Jan 1, 1946

By E. D. Gardner

INTRODUCTION OIL shale deposits have been exploited in various countries throughout the world, but generally with government aid. The oil-shale industry of Scotland perhaps is the oldest and best-known; the largest was conducted in Manchuria by the Japanese during World War II as a source of liquid fuels for military uses. In general, foreign oil-shale deposits that have been exploited are much lower grade than those in the western United States. Considerable interest began to be shown in western oil shales in 1916; the peak of activities was in 1923. The Catlin operation, near Elko, Nevada, perhaps was the nearest approach in this country to an oil-shale enterprise on a commercial scale. Over 100 companies were formed, ostensibly for exploiting the oil shale; a large number of them, however, proved to be stock promotions only, which gave the embryo industry a black eye. The Bureau of Mines operated an experimental oil-shale retort plant near Rifle, Colorado, from September 1926 to June 1927 and again from April 1928 to July 1929, after which the plant was dismantled. By this time the East Texas oil fields had come in and the country lost interest in substitute liquid fuels. During World War II the Nation again became concerned about the magnitude of its petroleum reserves. Congress (April1944) directed the Bureau of Mines to build and operate demonstration plants to produce synthetic liquid fuels from coal, oil shales, and agricultural and other products; a five-year program was authorized. As a part of this program the Bureau of Mines has built, at Anvil Points near Rifle, Colorado, a retort plant and developed an experimental mine to supply the plant with oil shale. An important part of the mining work at Rifle is to devise methods and select practices for mining the oil shale on a commercial scale at the lowest practicable cost. The product to be mined has a relatively low value, a fact that must be kept continuously in mind. The combined aim of those in charge of the mining and those in charge of retorting is to demonstrate that the shale oil can be produced at a cost per barrel corresponding to the current quotation for crude petroleum -or at least very close to it. Plans call for an uninterrupted flow of broken oil shale from the face in the mine, through crushers, through the retorts and thence to the disposal dump. The disposal of the spent shale in the Rifle area should present no unusual problem. Mining research has consisted so far of paper studies of the general phases of the problem, determination of the widest span that the roof stone will stand safely unsupported, and drilling problems. Underground development has not proceeded far

Jan 1, 1947

By Shiou-Chuan Sun

There are several postulations for the mechanism of slime-coating. Incel proposed the electrostatic hypothesis, del Giudice2 suggested the chemical theory; Bankoff3 reported that slime-coating is inhibited whenever the surfaces of the slime particles are ionized sufficiently for Brownian movement to occur, and is facilitated when they are not. These postulations were examined by experiments involving the Burton tube, the cataphoretic cell, and slime-coating. The techniques involved will be described elsewhere in this paper. The electrostatic hypothesis, supported by migration experiments in a Burton tube, was abandoned by del Giudice.2 Experiments of mineral migration in a Burton tube. after the idea of Ince with modification, indicated that this apparatus was inefficient for accurate observation. A cataphoretic cell was constructed. The experimental data, as shown in this paper, enable the correlation and advancing of this hypothesis. Del Giudice's chemical hypothesis considered that slime particles are attached to the galena surfaces by a cement formed as the result of a metathetical reaction between the sulphide and the slime particles. Applying this hypothesis, the calcite slime particles were cemented to the galena surface by the formation of a cementing lead carbonate. In a similar way, lead silicate was considered as the cement of quartz slime coating on galena. Experiments verifying this hypothesis were carried out according to the following procedure: Fresh mineral particles selected from the central part of the broken lumps and examined first under a microscope for ascertaining a clean surface were placed in a small beaker (1.5-in. dia. by 2.5 in. deep) half filled with one kind of slime pulp. The dilution of all slime pulp was 4:I and the particle size of slime was minus 400-mesh. After agitation for 5 min. the specimen was removed by a sharp-end tong and washed gently three times in three separate distilled water baths. It was dried before a small electrical fan and examined immediately under a microscope. A photograph was made of the observation. With reference to the published solubilities,' several of these experiments, which contradict the chemical hypothesis, are listed as following: I. The coating of fluorite slime on the galena surface was light but the coating of galena slime on the fluorite surface was heavy. In a similar way, the coating of quartz slime on the galena was fairly light, but the coating of galena slime on the quartz particle was heavy. According to the chemical hypothesis, using the same constituents and regardless of which is the slime, the density of the coating should be expected to be the same. This, however, as shown above, is not true. Moreover, fluorite (CaF2), having a solubility of 16 mg.4a per liter of water, should not be

Jan 1, 1943

By Frederick C. Langenberg

IT has been shown1 that copper can be removed from iron-base alloys by solvent extraction with molten lead and sodium sulfide slags. In these processes copper removal is favored by a positive deviation of copper in iron from ideal behavior. Chou' determined the distribution of copper between liquid silver and iron and obtained a value for the activity coefficient of copper in iron at 1600°C, y°, of 9.12. Chipman" calculated the activity coefficient from the Fe-Cu phase diagram to be 12 at 1600°C. More recent work by Koros and Chipman" yields a value at 1600°C for y V equal to 8.0. In this latter work, the distribution of copper between silver and iron was measured at 1600°C, while the activity of copper in the silver phase was determined from calculations based on the Ag-Cu phase diagram. The present work presents another value of based on calculations from the Cu-Pb phase diagram, on the heat of mixing data for the Cu-Pb system, and on an experimental study of the distribution of copper between iron and lead at 1600°C. These experiments were part of a larger research on the removal of copper from iron-base alloys conducted at The Pennsylvania State University. Experimental Procedure—The distribution of copper between pure iron and lead at 1600°C was made in the furnace assembly shown in Fig. 1. The melts were made in high purity alumina crucibles under an atmosphere of prepurified argon. Temperatures were read with an optical pyrometer sighted into a %-in. hole drilled in the inductor. Extensive calibration of the optical readings with immersion readings had been carried out previously. The initial charges consisted of 100 g of electrolytic iron and varying weights of copper. The melts were brought rapidly to 1600°C and 75 g of lead added. The temperature was quickly readjusted to 1600°C, and the melts were held for 10 min at this temperature. A sample was then drawn from the iron layer in a fused silica tube. This sample was analyzed to determine the copper content of the iron layer at equilibrium, while the copper content of the lead layer was determined from a material balance. The validity of the material balance was confirmed by a chemical analysis of the entire lead layer for one heat in which the crucible was removed and quenched after the iron sample was taken. The calculated copper content of the lead-rich phase was 1.18 pct; while the entire lead layer analyzed 1.20 pct Cu. The distribution results are shown in Fig. 2. The distribution constant, N,.'r'"/N, is equal to 3.95. Discussion—From the Cu-Pb phase diagram' it can be seen that lead-rich liquid Pb-Cu solutions

Jan 1, 1957

By G. Sachs, G. Espey

IT is well known that high residual stresses are created in tubing by the sinking process, in which no internal tool or mandrel is used.1-4 In this process, the wall thickness is usually slightly increased.4,5 In tube drawing with a plug, the residual stresses are gradually reduced with increasing reduction of wall, and, by the conventional approximation methods of stress measurement, no stress is detected in tubing in which the wall reduction is over 50 per cent of the total reduction in cross-sectional area.1-6, It has also been observed that higher stresses are set up by the use of wide-angle dies than by the use of acute dies.2 The actual stress distribution in drawn .tubing has been investigated by a few workers,7-9 but has not been related to the conditions of the drawing process: Some attempts have been made to correlate accelerated cracking tests for stresses in brass products with the magnitude of the circumferential stresses and the condition of the metal.1-10 MATERIALS AND PREPARATION The material used in this experiment was commercial cartridge-brass (70 per cent Cu, 30 per cent Zn) tubing in the straightened and annealed condition.‡ This tubing was of various outside diameters and had a wall thickness of 0.032 in. It was sunk to 1/2-in. outside diameter by means of an experimental 10,000-lb. hydraulic draw-bench, with a maximum drawing speed of 8 ft. per minute. All dies were of 1/2 -in. diameter. Various die materials and contours were used in order to study the effect of die design on residual stresses in the tubing; the specifications for the dies are given in Fig. I. Castor oil was used throughout as lubricant. Chattering occurred in sinking some of the tubing, particularly when dies having the more acute angles were used, but the tubes showing chatter marks did not differ markedly from those with a smooth surface regarding the magnitude of residual stress. The source of the chattering has not yet been revealed. The wall of the tubing becomes thicker during sinking, as previously observed 4,5 The increases in wall thickness were 3, 7 and 9.5 per cent on the average for 6, 20 and 33 per cent reductions in diameter, no effect of the contour being noticeable. The reductions mentioned throughout this investigation do not consider this fact, but are reductions of the outside diameter. For the evaluation of the residual stress two fundamentally different methods were used. The approximation method1,11 of splitting a certain length of tubing was employed to obtain a bird's-eye view of the effect of various drawing conditions on the circumferential stress measured by the diameter change occurring on splitting. For the determination of the complete stress

Jan 1, 1941

By M. Muskat, H. H. Evinger

A METHOD has been developed whereby one may calculate the productivity factors of producing formations from a knowledge of the reservoir conditions. Account is taken not only of the heterogeneous character of the gas-oil flow system but also of the detailed variations with pressure of the shrinkage and viscosity of the oil, the solubility of the gas in the oil, and even the variability of the gas viscosity and the deviation of the gas from ideal behavior. Curves are shown giving the results of numerical calculations on the production rate as a function of the pressure differential for a high-pressure and a low-pressure system, three values of gas-oil ratio being treated in each case. Curves are also given showing the variation with distance from the well of the pressure, oil saturation, and permeability. The effect of connate water is briefly discussed in relation to the apparently large discrepancies between the calculated and observed productivity-factor values. INTRODUCTION The significance of the productivity factor as a measure of the capacity of an oil-bearing formation to produce is well recognized; for it is the composite and integrated resultant of the physical properties of both the porous medium and the fluid stream passing through it with respect to the ease with which the particular petroleum fluids present in the formation can flow through it and into producing wells. The most direct method of determining the productivity factor of a well consists, as is well known, in the simultaneous measurement of reservoir-pressure differentials and rates of production and the expression of the data in terms of rate of flow per unit pressure drop.1 Actual measurements carried out in this manner on producing wells have given factors that generally lie in the range of 0 to 100 bbl. per day per pound pressure drop. This wide range arises not only from variations in permeability but also from the varying sand thickness of producing formations. One of the aims of developing a theory of the mechanics of oil production obviously is that of predicting what the productivity factor should be from a knowledge of the individual characteristics of the producing formation and the fluids produced. For homogeneous fluid systems passing through a porous medium into a producing well, it has been known for some time that the steady-state rate of liquid flow Q is given by the formula:* [ ] where k is the sand permeability, h its thickness, µ the liquid viscosity, [Ap] the pressure drop between the well and the distant parts of the reservoir, in particular that at a radius [ro ]and [r ] is the well radius. This gives the productivity factor: [ ] which will have a numerical value for a liquid of I centipoise viscosity of 0.9316 or

Jan 1, 1941

By H. l. Burghoff, C. H. Mathewson

THE study of the creep of metals under conditions of prolonged loading has received the attention of many investigators for several years and almost innumerable papers have been published on the various aspects of the subject. As it appeared that much could still be learned from a study of single crystals, the present work was carried out to study the effects of temperature and conditions of loading upon the properties and deformation in tension of single crystals of alpha brass containing about 70 per cent copper and 30 per cent zinc. In particular, it was hoped to obtain information from tests below and above the recrystallization temperature of the material, so that properties such as elastic limit, yield point or critical stress, and manner of deformation might be compared for tensile tests at an ordinary loading rate and for prolonged. loading. Accordingly, short-time tensile tests and creep tests were made at room temperature, 300º, 500° and 700°F. The two latter temperatures are above the lowest possible recrystallization temperature of polycrystalline 70-30 brass. PREVIOUS WORK Clarke and White1 have made creep tests of some copper-zinc alloys, including 70-30 brass, and copper-zinc-tin alloys at temperatures both below and above the recrystallization temperature of the materials considered. Hanson and Wheeler have studied the flow and fracture of single crystals of aluminum for short-time and prolonged tensile loading over a range of temperature extending from room temperature to 400°F., their experiments being made without consideration of the orientations of the test specimens. Extensive creep and fracture tests on single crystals of lead at room temperature have been made by Betty3 and by Baker, Betty & Moore.4 Results of the last-named investigation were published while the present work was in progress. Millers examined the elastic limit of zinc single crystals at and above room temperature by means of creep tests, while Miller and Milligan6 reported the results of tests designed to show the influence of temperature on elastic limit of single crystals of aluminum, silver and zinc. The behavior, of iron crystals under static tensile loading at room temperature was reported by Gensamer and Mehl7 while the present investigation was in progress. Their specimens exhibited a well-defined yield point, below which no appreciable creep could be detected. The manner of yielding proved interesting, as the shape of the creep-time curve for the iron crystals differed from the common type of creep curves. Elongation did not begin immediately, or at least was initially very slow. The rate of elongation then increased continuously and finally decreased to zero. This S-shaped type of elongation-time

Jan 1, 1941

By H. W. Graham

AS these annual occasions in honor of Henry Marion Howe continue through the years, there is progressively less likelihood that the lecturer will have had personal knowledge of Dr. Howe. The present speaker is one of those who unfortunately had no opportunity to come under the inspiring presence of this great metallurgist. A review of Howe's work shows it to cover a comprehensive range of interests and to evidence an impressive richness of detail. Not only was Howe at home in the laboratory, but he was familiar with the processes of iron and steel making and had a real understanding of them writings include much that is descriptive of processes with a wealth of material that is becoming of increasing historical value. He recorded his studies of the theoretical aspects of processes and published at least two process classifications, one in 1890 that was lengthy and somewhat theoretical, and a second in 1906 that was more of a practical listing. Wide as Howe's field of interest was, it is significant of the circumstances of his time that he gave little consideration to raw materials or to their effect on iron and steel making processes. In 1933, Waterhouse, Howe lecturer for that year, presented a descriptive summary of the major steelmaking processes, and in 1946 Joseph discussed the blast furnace process. Otherwise Howe lectures have not dealt with processes as major subjects. In today's lecture, with no effort to describe the mechanical arrangements of iron and steel making facilities, it is proposed to examine the essential technological elements of the processes, to explore the inter-relation of these elements, and particularly to seek recognition and understanding of those factors which determine why certain processes are or are not used. The discussion of this lecture will deal with the major well-known large tonnage processes, with only such attention to processes of minor tonnage and special character as may be warranted for explanation by contrast. Subject to the errors of generalization and the short- comings of condensation involved in presentation limited to a single hour, it is proposed to examine broadly but intensively those operations which convert raw materials into steel. It is an innovation for a Howe lecturer to discuss the raw materials of the iron and steel industry, but the changing circumstances of passing years intensify the influence of raw materials on processes and require the metallurgist to be alert for the process adjustments that may become advisable or mandatory. For a half century the metallurgical processing of iron and steel has followed a surprisingly straight path, but this does not necessarily mean that there are no curves in the road ahead. Ages ago primitive man came to know iron in its metallic form, not only by the

Jan 1, 1947

By H. W. Graham

AS these annual occasions in honor of Henry Marion Howe continue through the years: there is progressively less likelihood that the lecturer will have had personal knowledge of Dr. Howe. The present speaker is one of those who unfortunately had no opportunity to come under the inspiring presence of this great metallurgist. A review of Howe's work shows it to cover a comprehensive range of interests and to evidence an impressive richness of detail. Not only was Howe at home in the laboratory, but he was familiar with the processes of iron and steel making and had a real understanding of them. His writings include much that is descriptive of processes with a wealth of material that is becoming of increasing historical value. He recorded his studies of the theoretical aspects of processes and published at least two process classifications, one in 1890 that was lengthy and somewhat theoretical, and a second in 1906 that was more of a practical listing. Wide as Howe's field of interest was, it is significant of the circumstances of his time that he gave- little consideration to raw materials or to their effect on iron and steel making processes. In 1933, Waterhouse, Howe lecturer for that year, presented a descriptive summary of the major steel making processes, and in 1946 Joseph discussed the blast furnace process. Otherwise Howe lectures have not dealt with processes as major subjects. In today's lecture, with no effort to describe the mechanical arrangements of iron and steel making facilities, it is proposed to examine the essential technological elements of the processes, to explore the inter-relation of these elements, and particularly to seek recognition and understanding of those factors which determine why certain processes are or are not used. The discussion of this lecture will deal with the major well-known large tonnage processes, with only such attention to processes of minor tonnage and special character as may be warranted for explanation by contrast. Subject to the errors of generalization and the shortcomings of condensation involved in presentation limited to a single hour, it is proposed to examine broadly but intensively those operations which convert raw materials into steel. It is an innovation for a Howe lecturer to discuss the raw materials of the iron and steel industry, but the changing circumstances of passing years intensify the influence of raw materials on processes and require the metallurgist to be alert for the process adjustments that may become advisable or mandatory. For a half century the metallurgical processing of iron and steel has followed a surprisingly straight path, but this does not necessarily mean that there are no curves in the road ahead. Ages ago primitive man came to know iron in its metallic form, not only by the

Jan 1, 1948