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The primary use of coal in the US is for electric generation. The problems associated with the use of this vast amount of coal is the central theme of these sessions. The problems discussed include: production capacity, mining problems, coal cleaning, transportation, combustion, and various environmental problems, such as health effects of coal combustion, water and air pollution, and solid waste disposal.

Jan 1, 1979

By Ralph B. Stevens

The objective of the Automatic Fire Sensing and Suppression Systems for Mobile Mining Equipment program is to document the design, fabrication, factory testing, 11-month in-mine testing, and final demonstrations of auto¬matic fire protection systems on several units of mobile mining equipment including trucks, front-end loaders, cranes, draglines, coal haulers, and cutters. Proper sealing of all system components from the elements, especially in corrosive mine conditions, is essential for reasonable life-cycles with minimum maintenance. Also, adequate power supplies, wire, connectors, and plumbing with adequate protection from the harsh mine environments and physical damage were necessary during the in-mine tests. The fire protection systems were developed from technology employed during two previous Bureau of Mines contracts: HO122053, Improved Sensors and Fire Sensing Systems for Mining Equipment, and H0232059, Validation Testing of Truck Fire Protection Systems.

Jan 1, 1978

By Alfred Traverse

The Brandon lignite is a small deposit of very low rank coal near the village of Forestdale in the town of Brandon, Vt. It occurs in association with other sediments, principally sands and silts. This lignitic coal has attracted considerable scientific interest since the middle of the 19th century because of the abundance of fossils in the sediment and the rarity of lignite in New England. A cooperative investigation has been developed by E. S. Barghoorn, W. Spackman, and the author in which different phases of the problem have been worked on in a coordinated research program. This paper presents results of an investigation of the very abundant fossil pollen and spores and some other microfossils of the deposit. The studies on which this manuscript is based were made in large part at Harvard University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for a Ph. D. degree.

Jan 1, 1955

By C. Haycocks

The problems caused by interaction in multi-horizon mining are world wide and are not limited to the coal industry. These problems will continue to increase as mining of new seams multiplies and replaces production from mined out horizons. Interaction problems are particularly evident in the Appalachian coal fields which contain many mineable, contiguously placed coal seams. Selection of the mining sequence of these seams, historically and currently, is based primarily on considerations of seam ownership, availability, and economics. Experience has shown, however, that mining any seam can seriously affect subsequent operations in coal seams both above and below the one being mined. This interaction effect is often detrimental to the recovery cost and safety of mining the subsequent seams. Designing to avoid or minimize interaction effects represents a major challenge to the modern coal mining industry and therefore is the focus of this research. In an effort to evaluate past interaction effects and provide guidelines for future mine design, interactive ground control problems were categorized into four areas. These are pillar load transfer, massive interseam shearing, subsidence and pressure arching effects. To facilitate research, each of these areas was studied separately although in reality these subdivisions are arbitrary and have considerable overlap.

Jan 1, 1983

By William Hawker, James Vaughan, Jeff Chen, Antony van der Ent

"Nickel agromining utilizes hyperaccumulator plants (“metal crops”) to extract nickel from low-grade soils, a process that yields high-grade nickel bio-ore. This feedstock is further processed into a range of nickel products. The bio-ore is relatively free of impurities that complicate the traditional processing of laterite nickel ores. In this paper, current primary nickel processing routes and proposed nickel bio-ore processing options are summarised. A novel pyro-hydrometallurgical route demonstrated at the laboratory scale is described. This process produces a precipitated nickel hydroxide product and takes advantage of the water-soluble basic compounds in the ash to minimise reagent requirements, thereby making it suitable for small-scale implementation in close proximity to the nickel farm. In this process, nickel is precipitated from the leach solution using the basic ash wash liquor. Leaching nickel from ash generated from open air burning requires strong acid and long residence times to obtain high recoveries due to its complex nature and distribution of nickel in multiple phases. This process can be improved by optimising the ashing process with respect to nickel leachability.INTRODUCTIONHyperaccumulator plants have the unique capacity to ‘biopurify’ and concentrate certain trace elements (e.g. nickel) from the soil into their biomass (Reeves 2003; van der Ent et al., 2015). Cultivating these plants as ‘metal crops’ by periodically harvesting and incinerating their biomass generates a high-grade bio-ore (Chaney et al. 1998; Li et al. 2003). This process is called phytomining or ‘agromining’ which is an emerging technology for extracting nickel from sub-economic resources (van der Ent et al., 2015). Potential near-term applications of the technology include implementation on land ahead of processing of the underlying ore-body (Willis 2015), as a mine-site rehabilitation strategy or as an alternative crop for farmers on land that is not suitable for normal food crops. In the longer term, nickel agromining could provide a significant supplement to the nickel supply chain. Critical to the success of agromining is effective bio-ore processing. Due to the unique chemical composition of this feedstock material, existing processes are not very efficient. Our current research efforts aim to develop new process options that overcome limitations of previously trialled routes. In this paper we summarise conventional nickel process routes and proposed new options for producing agromined nickel."

Jan 1, 2016

By K. Fukushima, K. Baba, H. Kurokawa, M. Yamagiwa

"The Toyo smelter has expanded its anode production capacity from 126,500 to 239,000 t/year by introducing technical oxygen into blast air for flash and converter furnaces and improving smelting facilities. Significant efforts were made in the expansion not to increase the number of workers, which mean development of some automation systems for the copper converters and anode casting wheel. The efforts have resulted in the above-mentioned increase in productivity and a saving of production cost as well as a decrease in the number of workers for the anode casting operation.IntroductionThe Toyo smelter has been performing a highly stable and pollution free operation since its commencement in 1971 (1). Its distinctive features are the on-line control by process computer (2) and the high productivity without trouble. But owing to the so-called oil crisis in 1979, we were faced with a sharp increase in production cost. To decrease the production cost, some measures for saving of energy were planned and carried out, such as conversion from oil to coal in a flash furnace (3), the heat recovery from converter slag and the introduction of technical oxygen in blast air with the intention of energy saving as much as possible.The first increase in production capacity and some savings of production cost were attained in 1982 by the introduction of technical oxygen in blast air for the flash furnace without major modification of the furnace as shown in Table I. The capacity of an oxygen plant is 7,800 Nm3/H as 90% O2 . Part of oxygen from the plant is also supplied to tuyeres of copper converters through an oxygen holding tank with a volume of 830 m3 at 7 kg/cm2-G."

Jan 1, 1989

By Karl Gunnar Holter, Frank Clement

"INTRODUCTION Typically waterproofing of conventionally excavated tunnels has been done by installing pre-fabricated sheet membranes between the primary temporary support lining and the secondary permanent inner lining. The membrane acts as a separation or sliding layer between the linings, which is often desirable. The geotextile installed behind the sheet membrane provides the required drainage and protection of the system. The design of the tunnel lining is strongly influenced and limited by the use of waterproofing sheet membranes. Since primary and secondary linings are separated from each other, forming a double-shell lining system. In that case the secondary lining must be designed for all permanent loads, although the sprayed concrete primary lining continues resists ground and water loads for a long time after construction. Significant progress has been made in sprayed concrete technology over the last two decades, with advanced admixtures, as well as the improved application technology using spraying robots. The development of new admixtures like superplasticizers based on poly-carboxylates, alkali free accelerators and silica fume, enables designers to use permanent sprayed concrete linings (SCL) increasingly for long-term service life. When designed and applied correctly, sprayed concrete can be considered as permanent. The use of spray applied membranes has seen increased use over the last decade in some countries, and demonstrated functionality and cost-effectiveness in several situations. This paper describes the use of the sprayed waterproofing membrane MasterSeal 345, an EVA polymer based product, and the practical experiences from several projects. SPRAY APPLIED WATERPROOFING MEMBRANES The sprayed waterproofing membrane is polymer based and has been especially developed for underground structures. The membrane is applied between primary and secondary concrete linings and develops high bond strength on both sides to the concrete (doubled-bonded)."

Jan 1, 2016

By C. C. Li

Traditionally, strong and stiff devices, such as fully encapsulated rebar bolts and concrete lining and arches, are preferred for underground rock support. The attention is paid to the strength of the devices in such support designs. It has been observed in engineering practice that support systems composed of stiff devices are often subjected to premature failure in high stress rock conditions. In the past decade, yield support devices have been employed to improve the performance of rock support systems. A rock support system usually consists of both internal and external devices that are installed within the rock mass and on the free surface of the rock, respectively. Great efforts have been made to make support devices yieldable in the past years, but the efforts are focused on different aspects in the tunneling and mining branches. In the tunneling branch, the focus has been put on the development of external yield devices, such as Lining Stress Controller (LSC), Honeycomb element and compressible concrete, which are embedded in shotcrete liners, while in the mining industry the efforts has been on the development of yield rockbolts, such as the cone bolt and the D-Bolt. The internal and external support devices are not compatible in their deformation capacities in the current rock support systems even though yield devices have been employed. All the devices in a support system should be deformable and compatible in deformation capacity. With such a support system, premature failure of individual support devices could be avoided and the service life of the support system is prolonged. It is a trend at present to take into account the energy absorption capacity, instead of simply the strength, of support devices in rock support design.

Jan 1, 2015

By Kang-Hyun Lee, In-Mo Lee, Byung-Kyu Kim, Parkm Jinho, Seoung-Won Lee

"In this study, the TBM Resistivity Prediction (TRP) system is developed for predicting the location, thickness, permittivity ratio and electrical conductivity of anomalous zones ahead of tunnel face using the measured resistivity of the ground. The applicability of the developed system was verified by performing field tests at a construction site in which an EPB-shield TBM is used for tunnelling work. In the first field test, it was found that the rock around the tunnel face had the same resistivity and permittivity with the rock ahead of the tunnel face indicating no anomaly ahead of the tunnel face. In the second test, a stronger zone 5-m thick was predicted ahead of the tunnel face based on lower permittivity than that of the rock around the tunnel face. The ground condition assessed by the newly developed TRP system matched well with that either predicted from geophysical exploration or directly obtained from drilling boreholes or from daily observed muck conditions. INTRODUCTION During tunneling work, the emergence of unpredicted zones of relatively weaker or stronger ground can lead to delays in construction work or an increase of construction cost. Predicting anomalous zones ahead of tunnel face in advance can thus prevent time and economic loss. For these reasons, various methods to predict the ground condition ahead of the tunnel face have been studied and developed. Prediction methods using various kinds of equipment include tunnel seismic prediction, ground penetrating radar, electromagnetic surveys based on electronic antennas, and electrical resistivity surveys conducted by analyzing electric currents in the ground ahead of the tunnel face (Ryu et al. 2008). However, most of the prediction methods are only applicable to conventional tunneling job sites, which feature free access to the tunnel face. In mechanized tunneling projects, accessibility to the tunnel face is very limited because the tunnel face is occupied by the TBM."

Jan 1, 2016

By Richard E. Thill

The Bureau of Mines' Oil Shale Data Bank (OSDB) was created in 1976 to serve as a centralized source for the storage, retrieval, and dissemination of technical literature, patents, and information on research projects in oil shale. Thousands of bibliographic references, patents, and research projects relating to the mining of oil shale have been identified, abstracted, and indexed according to selected keyword topics. The resulting data bank listings are contained in three sections, each with a separate keyword breakdown for use in rapidly identifying references pertaining to a specific subject. All references cited in the OSDB were published prior to an established cut-off date of May 1, 1981, when a redirection of Bureau of Mines programs resulted in the loss of project funds and the subsequent phasing-out of data bank operations. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The oil shale data bank listings are the result of a team effort of the project staff. The contributions of Jimaleen Jansma for keypunching, information acquisition, and data entry, and John Brandenburg and Sandra rake for keywording and information acquisition are gratefully acknowledged. Appreciation is expressed to the staff members of the Smithsonian Science Information Exchange, Washington D.C. for their cooperation in supplying data on recent research projects in oil shale for inclusion in the OSDR listings. Appreciation is extended also to the staff of the Gallegos Research Group for assisting with computer services to obtain the final printouts and transfer of files onto magnetic tape.

Jan 1, 1982

By Floyd G. Anderson

This report reviews and summarizes information on prevention and suppression of dust in mining, tunneling, and quarrying published in the United States from 1961 through 1967. Unpublished pertinent data developed or assembled by the Bureau of Mines during this period also are included.

Jan 1, 1969

The original manuscript of section 2 of this series of miners' circulars devoted to accident prevention in bituminous-coal mines was completed in September 1944. At that time roof bolting had been tried with some success in the lead-mining district of south-eastern Missouri, but information on the subject was so fragmentary that it was not included as a method of roof support. References to roof support in bituminous-coal mines, therefore, were confined almost entirely to conventional timbering methods. In 1947 the Bureau instituted a research program and intensive study of the general problem of roof control, which emphasized roof-bolt application. The rapid increase in mechanized mining following the close of World War II provided the impetus for the Bureau's roof-control investigations, because the vertical supports used with conventional timber restricted the maneuverability of mechanical face equipment, and the industry wanted to explore every possible method of eliminating interference with the production cycle to gain full advantage of mechanized mining. Moreover, the accidental dislodgment of vertical supports greatly increased the roof-fall hazard. As roof falls have killed and seriously injured more mine workmen every year than any other cause or classification of injury since records have been kept, the Bureau assumed this investigative leadership with the prime objective of substantially reducing the annual toll from falls of roof, including falls of rib and face.

Jan 1, 1958

Greater mining productivity requires a more efficient cutting process. The cutting force available from today?s mining machines has been optimized with respect to machine size and weight. Researchers have shown that when employing water-jet-assisted cutting, bit forces and drum torques can be reduced significantly, which may allow mining machines to become lighter and more efficient. The Bureau of Mines has initiated a program to develop a water- jet-assisted rotary cutting system using the conventional bit assisted by a directed water jet operating at moderate pressures (3,000 to 10,000 psi). This water-jet-assisted cutting system has the potential to improve cutting efficiency without increasing machine horsepower or water usage (beyond what is presently used for dust control) or requiring fundamental changes in mining practice. IR addition to improvements in productivity, other anticipated benefits of water-jet cutting include reduced generation of respirable dust, elimination of frictional ignitions, increased bit life, reduced fines, and fewer machine vibrations. The papers presented at this open industry meeting discuss the development of water-jet-assisted cutting technology and future application of this technology to a variety of mining techniques including roof drilling and longwall mining.

Jan 1, 1985

By Paul C. Hyndman

The U.S. Bureau of Mines inventoried Federal mineral lands in Idaho and classified them in detail, section by section, according to their availability for mineral exploration and development as affected by legal restrictions and agencies' management practices. The Bureau also identified known mineral deposit areas (KMDAs) and areas conducive to oil, gas, and geothermal resources. This information is shown on maps (developed in part by geographic information system technology) that spatially compare the availability for mineral entry of Federal land with these KMDAs to demonstrate the extent and severity of restrictions on mineral entry. Idaho contains 53.1 million acres, 35.7 million (67%) of which is Federal mineral land. About 7 million acres of this land is within KMDAs that host medium-to high-value locatable mineral deposits; 36% of this land is available, 27% is slightly to moderately restricted, and 37% is severely restricted or unavailable. For the leasable minerals, about 1.8 million acres are within KMDAs that host medium-to high-value phosphate deposits, about 5.4 million acres are favorable for oil and gas resources, and 3.9 million acres for geothermal resources. The percentages of land availability are 30%, 45%, and 25% for the phosphate acreage, 38%, 34%, and 28% for the oil and gas acreage, and 43%, 30%, and 27% for the geothermal acreage.

Jan 1, 2012

By Eugene V. Cilento, R. Clark Lantz, K. A. DiGregorio

"This laboratory bas developed a sensitive electro-optical method to quantify the initial rate (R) and total amount (MAX) of superoxide (02) produced by single pulmonary alveolar macrophages (PAM). The method uses a microscope-based TV system to visualize PAM in culture, and to video record the images during the time the cells produce 02. MAX and R are calculated from measurement of temporal changes in optical density in the images due to precipitated diformazan formed by the reaction of O2-, produced by each PAM, with nitroblue tetrazolium present in the culture medium. To date, values of Rand MAX, measured due to adherence of PAM to the dish, have been compared to values obtained when quartz, coal mine dust (CMD), and kaolin . were added to the medium (in vitro). Rand MAX have also been calculated for PAM lavaged from animals exposed to quartz and CMD in the WVU Inhalation Facility. Presently, experiments are being done using which will permit PAM to be restirnulated by different dusts to help establish a dose response relation~ p and a means to study the role of lung surfactant on modifying the acute toxicity of inbaled dusts. Ultimately, this methodology should provide useful insight into establishing the role of 02 in PAM dysfunction due to inhalation of dusts, and in lung diseases such as pneumoconioses. INTRODOCTIONPAM are free cells found in the lungs which protect the lungs by removing foreign debris and bacteria. This is accomplished, in part, by the process of phagocytosis, whereby foreign matter is internalized into vesicles known as primary phagosomes. Phagocytosis also involves the chemical breakdown of inhaled dusts and the killing of microbes. Detoxification is aided by the respiratory burst, which is a metabolic response of the cell to foreign substances, that results in the production of highly reactive oxidizing agents from the partial reduction of extracellular oxygen to superoxide (02) at the surface of the plasma membrane. Superoxide undergoes either spontaneous or enzyme catalyzed dismutation reactions to form hydrogen peroxide (H202) and subsequently hydroxyl radical (OH•) and singlet oxygen (02 t ). However, while these oxygen metabolites aid in the killing of microbes they also may destroy endogenous tissue. For example, 02 has been linked to the aging process and to many diseases including emphysema, diabetes, and cancer.'' Therefore, a better understanding of the production of 02 is extremely important since an abnonnally low production could result in damage by inhaled dusts and bacteria while an abnormally high production could result in direct damage to the lung tissue by the phagocytes. Inhalation of respirable sized mineral dusts, such as quartz (silica), coal mine dusts (CMD), and asbestos, results in various pulmonary disorders. PAM are thought to play an important role since evidence suggests that the first step in fibrogenesis is an interaction of dust particles with PAM. Generally, in vivo exposure of animals to mineral dusts results in increased respiratory burst activity, migratory patterns, phagocytic behavior, and secretory potential of PAM, and for this reason these have been implicated to be pivotal events in the pathogenesis of pulmonary diseases.1 In addition to stimulation of resident PAM, an influx of monocytes into the lung and/or production of new macrophages generally occurs in response to fibrogenic dust inhalation. Further, PAM may attract and stimulate fibroblasts, which normally synthesize proteins and collagen during rep~ of tissue, by secreting chemoattractants and enzymes. Thus, PAM may be involved in pulmonary disorders through failure or partial loss of their defensive capability, or indirectly, through release of other mediators."

Jan 1, 1990

By Poul Hansen

"In mid-I986, a world-class mining enterprise was created in British Columbia, bringing together the copper mining operations of Lornex Mining Corporation and Cominco into a new entity, Highland Valley Copper. This paper will focus on the background and rationalef or the formation of this partnership, the resulting operating changes and the productivity and cost benefits expected.IntroductionSince the deterioration of the world copper industry in 1981, the future of the Lomex and Cominco mines in the Highland Valley of British Columbia looked increasingly precarious. Despite the expansion of the Lomex mill complex in 1981 to one of the world's most cost-efficient copper and molybdenum concentrators, persistent low metal prices had made the remainder of the ore in the Lomex orebody marginally economic and had significantly foreshortened the expected life of the operation.Cominco had acquired the Bethlehem Copper assets in order to consolidate its ownership of the Valley orebody, and was feeding the Bethlehem concentrator with ore from the Valley orebody. In spite of the high grade and free-milling character of the Valley ore, profitability of the Cominco operation was severely restricted because of the limited capacity of the Bethlehem concentrator and its location high on the hillside above the orebody."

Jan 1, 1987

By James F. Archibald, H. Jame Hackwood

"Research was performed to assess the feasibility of barrier membrane substances, for use within mining or associated high risk environments, in restricting the diffusion transport of radon gas. Specific tests were conducted, both within laboratory and in situ environments, to determine radon gas concentration ratios across a barrier of interest and emanation rate variation resulting from application of such materials. Several materials have been demonstrated to be effective in restricting the emanation of radon gas into initially radon-free environments. One liquid material shows particularly good promise upon consideration of ideal radon barrier criteria.IntroductionIt has long been known (I.2.3) that inhalation of the short-lived, alpha particle-emitting daughters of radon gas can result in irradiation of lung tissue with the potential for causing lung cancer. Control measures are necessary to maintain concentrations of airborne contamination at a minimum to protect miner health and safety. Typical control practices in mines have been through the application of systematic ventilation and backfilling of excavated opening. As mines become deeper, however, and additional workings become exposed, increased ventilation capacity requirements are needed. As an alternative to other radiation control measures, the use of sealants to prevent radon migration from walls into mine atmospheres may provide a suitable engineering alternative."

Jan 1, 1987

By BARBOSA AMILTON, Denise C. R. Espinosa, David B. Dreisinger

Chelating resins can be used to recover important metals from different sources, and it is important to understand which resin is most suitable for each metal [1]. This review  benefits the mining industry because chelating resins can be used to recover metals from low-grade ores and mining tailings, increasing the industrial process efficiency [2–4]. Furthermore, the use of chelating resins in mining processes and mining tailings has the common problem of metals contamination, with iron being the main contaminant in low-grade ores and tailings. Understanding how contaminants decrease ion exchange efficiency is significant for industries [5

By YOUNIS S. MUSTAFA, GHORASHI ZAIN, ABDEL-ZAHER M. ABOUZEID, AHMED A. S. SEIFELNASSR

The present paper attempts to characterize the breakage properties of a brittle rock, quartz, at different size fractions when compressed at various loads in a confined piston die.  This is to understand the interaction between the various parameters affecting the breakage behavior of a brittle solid in a confined zone. Application of the results may lead to improving the energy efficiency in the size-reduction units, which use compression as the main stressing force. 

By P. Patnaik, F. Cuneo, D. M. Wang

Microwave (MW) energy has been used widely for several decades for communications, food processing, wood drying, vulcanization of rubber and medical therapy. Recently, this technology was found to be capable of successfully sintering ceramic and metallic powder materials, with the advantages of reducing soaking times and sintering temperatures. Unlike conventional heating, MW radiation works through the absorption of the microwave energy by a material placed in an electromagnetic field within the microwave cavity. A far more efficient heating process is produced due to the unique ability of microwaves in selectively heating a pecific part of the material with desirable dielectrical properties. This exploratory research was initiated with the objective of locally sintering the thermal barrier coating of gas turbine components using MW radiation. This novel technique may allow repairing of the component without subjecting the entire piece to unnecessary elevated temperatures and reduction of process time and cost. Y ttria stabilized zirconia was used in this study and sintering was conducted using a multimodal 1.2 kW microwave facility. Three configurations of heating setup were experimented and the preliminary results will be discussed in this paper.

Jan 1, 2006