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By James K. Hallenburg

Geophysical borehole logging is a valuable and inexpensive tool for coal deposit evaluation, development, and production. In addition to the usual determinations of depth and seam thickness, geophysical borehole logs can effectively and accurately determine the coal ash, moisture, and heat contents in situ. Location and evaluation of the partings can be done quickly and accurately. Overburden character determination, such as roof competence, dewatering parameters, ripability, trace element content of the coal and overburden, and sulfur content can be done with existing tools and techniques. The quality of such determinations depends upon the quality of planning and calibration.

Jan 1, 1984

By M. A. A. de Klaver

Due to the current cost and availability of crude oil in Brazil, Samarco Mineracao S. A., as part of its program of quality and productivity optimization and reduction of operating costs, has undertaken tests to utilize alternate energy sources for fuel oil used in its pelletizing plant at Point Ubu, Espirito Santo, Brazil. The energy program undertaken by Samarco consists of two basic steps. The first step was to reduce energy consumption, that is, to improve the thermal efficiency of the process. Secondly, a program was started to substitute the fuel oil with coal.

Jan 1, 1984

By J. D. Brown

The purpose of this paper is to inform members of the coal producing and consuming community about techniques used by The Carter Mining Company to control product quality at a large surface coal mining operation. During the early years of mining operations, coal quality received adequate attention but the Company's main emphasis was to build up its production rate and minimize mining costs. While these goals are still of prime importance, coal quality has received substantial attention in recent years. A Company guideline that no coal shipment shall exceed any contract or company-imposed coal quality specification has been successfully implemented. To implement this guideline, geology and coal quality modeling procedures were improved, in-pit drilling and blending programs were refined, and detailed shipment procedures were developed. Background Surface coal mining of subbituminous C rank coal in the Cillette. (Campbell County) Wyoming area has become increasingly competitive during recent years. Prior to 1974, one small surface mine produced coal for local consumption. During the last ten years, 13 new surface coal mines have been constructed. Coal production from Campbell County, Wyoming totalled 88 million short tons (79.8 million metric tons) in 1983, the majority being shipped to electric utilities in the central and southern United States via unit trains having a capacity of 10,000 short tons (9,072 metric tons).

Jan 1, 1984

By Paul H. Johnson

The CH Leaching process is a new, more sophisticated, form of gold, silver, uranium and sulfide copper heap leaching wherein each layer of a multi-layered heap is divided into a number of independent cells, each of which are successively formed and leached in the top layer of the heap to their maximum economic recoveries, and then rinsed and sealed from further leaching. Triangular earth berms form the outside walls of the heap and a gridwork of rock-filled berms on top of the bottom pad form independent under- heap solution storage zones. The high degree of solution recirculation and staging that occurs in this process produces a relatively small volume of very rich pregnant solution. The cellular heap design and its mode of operation result in a uniform, intensive, long-term leach for all of the ore particles in the heap. Besides improved metal recoveries, the process appears to have several cost and operating advantages. In the CR2MR process, sulfuric acid and a soluble sulfide are added to a gold and/or silver pregnant leach liquor to precipitate most of the contained silver, mercury, copper, etc. as sulfides at a pH below 2.5. The other product of the reaction is solubilized HCN. Following a liquid-solid separation step, cyanide is regenerated in the supernatant solution by raising the pH to a level above 9.0. This process regenerates a portion of the cyanide used in the leaching step, removes contaminant ion species (silver, copper, mercury, etc.) from the leach solution and, in a subsequent step, recovers the gold in an enriched form. It is believed that substantial cost savings may be experienced by the use of this process in some gold and/or silver leach systems.

Jan 1, 1984

By Arthur V. Petty

The Bureau of Mines has investigated the effect of refractory oxide additions, introduced in soluble form, on the refractory properties of 42-, 58-, and 70-pct-A1203 brick. Brick having porosities ranging from 12 to 16 pct were impregnated with solutions containing chrome, chrome-iron, zirconium, calcium, magnesium, cobalt, nickel, tin, and manganese ions. Additions of some of these ions provided dramatic improvements to such properties as hot modulus of rupture, hot load, and particularly slag resistance. These improvements can be related to reduction of porosity, amorphous grain boundary phases, formation of more refractory bond phases, and reduction of the wettability of Al203-containing refractories by metallurgical slags. Fifty-eight-percent-AI203 brick, impregnated with chrome, showed hot modulus of rupture, hot load, and slag resistance two to five times better than those of untreated 70-pct-AI203 brick. This could result in reducing the Nation's dependence on imported refractory-grade bauxite generally required for high-A1203 brick, as domestic alumina resouces could be used to produce the improved refractories.

Jan 1, 1984

By D. I. Bleiwas

Bureau of Mines personnel evaluated the potential availability of nickel from 151 deposits in 18 market economy countries and selected 126 for detailed analyses. An evaluation was made of tonnage-cost relationships indicating the quantity of nickel available at various total costs of production expressed in dollars per pound nickel, including a 15-pct rate of return on the invested capital. The 126 deposits studied contain approximately 73 million metric tons (t) of nickel. An estimated 52 million t is available from laterite deposits, of which less than 2 pct could be produced at $3.50/lb Ni, about equal to the average published price of nickel in 1981. Approximately 21 million t of nickel is available from sulfide deposits, of which about 10.0 million t can be produced at $3.50/lb. Sensitivity studies performed for both laterite deposits and sulfide deposits indicate that the total cost of nickel from laterites is most sensitive to increases in energy costs, and that sulfides are most sensitive to increases in labor costs; sulfides are also sensitive to changes in byproduct revenues. In 1983 the Nickel Mountain mine in Oregon was the only U.S. producer, though development continued on the Gasquet property in California. Of the total 5.1 million t of recoverable nickel in the United States, about 20 pct is available at or below $3.50/lb.

Jan 1, 1984

By Jack I. Paige

The Bureau of Mines conducted studies to provide data on the room temperature mechanical properties of Ti-6Al-4V alloy cast in waterglass-bonded zircon sand and to determine the effect of hot iso-static pressing (HIP) on these properties. Data on the cast and annealed Ti-6Al-4V alloy were compared with published data for forged and investment-cast Ti-6Al-4V alloy. The average Charpy V-notch impact strength compared favorably with the typical values of 17 ft?lbf for wrought material and 19.2 ft?lbf for investment-cast material. The room temperature mechanical proper-ties of cast and annealed material compared favorably with published values for investment-cast Ti-6Al-4V alloy and exceeded the specifications for (1) titanium and titanium alloy castings, grade C-5 according to ASTM B367-69, and (2) titanium alloy bars and forgings as specified in AMS4928H, except for the AMS4928H minimum requirement for reduction in area (25 pct). The minimum requirements are: tensile strength, 130 ksi; yield strength, 120 ksi (0.2 pct); and elongation, 6 pct. None of the specimens tested met the AMS4928H minimum requirement for reduction in area. The HIP process healed the internal casting porosity in the test specimens, but the fatigue strength was not significantly improved. The fatigue properties of both the cast and cast plus hot isostatically pressed castings were significantly lower than those of wrought products.

Jan 1, 1984

By John E. Litz

Coca Mines Inc. is a medium sized company exploring for and developing precious metal properties in the Western United States. They own interests in a number of properties which contain reserves of gold and silver. The Hog Heaven property presently is under development for a combination of open pit and underground mining, followed by recovery of the silver and gold by cyanidation. Property Location The properties included within the Hog Heaven Project are located in Flathead County, northwestern Montana. The property is readily accessible by road from either Polson or Kalispell, Montana, Figure 1. [ ]

Jan 1, 1984

By William D. Dodge

A typical quality program plan is presented for explosion-proof (XP) electrical enclosures. The plan is suggested for manufactures of XP enclosures which are to be certified by MSHA for mining use. The plan describes the quality system, organization and implementing mechanisms which are to be applied in the manufacture and delivery of certified XP enclosures. Example forms and example procedures are included.

Jan 1, 1984

The character of alluvial gold deposits presents severe difficulties, and sometimes limitations, on the extent to which metallurgical efficiency can be measured. Very little monitoring of metallurgical performance is practised. An indication of performance is often extracted from the comparison of production to the estimate. This is a dubious practice. The recovery efficiency of conventional practices, viz sluices, tables and jigs, falls off sharply below 0.2 mm. Field evaluation procedures tend to simulate these conventional practices. Thus the presence of fine gold may not be detected, particularly if obscured by clay. There is increasing evidence that fine gold could, in places, be present in sufficient concentrations to be economic. Most gold in paleoplacers is finer than 0.1 mm. There are established practices elsewhere in the mineral industry that may physically recover gold down to 5 microns in size and which could find application for fine alluvial gold.

Jan 1, 1984

By John Dodd

Corrosion studies in laboratory ball mills and grinding environment simulations produce corrosion rates and total metal removal rates much lower than those recorded in operating production ball mills. The corrosion component of ball metal loss in commercial mills represents less than 10% of the total loss expressed as micrometers/hour of exposure in recent USBM tests. Such small absolute losses are consistent with ball metal loss measured in production ball mill marked ball wear tests to determine effects of corrosion and abrasion resisting properties of alloys in operating mills which indicate that metal hardness and microstructure determine relative metal loss rates of a given situation. The combination of ore characteristics and grinding process dynamics determine metal loss severity. Alloying for corrosion resistance and modification of the milling corrosion environment yield relatively small metal loss reductions. Alloying and heat treatment to produce high hardness and microstructures of high carbon martensite and for cast irons, M7C3 carbides produces the lowest metal losses in typical wet grinding applications.

Jan 1, 1984

Gold mineralisation at the Enterprise Mine, 230 km south of Darwin, occurs within folded and metamorphosed sediments of the Lower Proterozoic Burrell Creek Formation adjacent to the Cullen Granite. The mineralised zone, which occupies an area of approximately 800 m x 300 m is local- ised by a moderately tight, upright symmetrical anticline which plunges shallowly southwards. The anticline has been disrupted by numerous faults on which the maximum movement is 40 m. Gold is associated with quartz and sul- phide veins which are present as saddle reefs, inter-reef veins and fault controlled reefs. it occurs within the veins or their alteration haloes, either as free gold (2 - 50 per cent of total gold content) or intimately associated with sulphides, principally arsenopyrite and Pyrrhotite.

Jan 1, 1984

By A. Y. Lee

Prior work at the Bureau of Mines resulted in the successful development of a bench-scale, combination electrorefining-electrowinning method for recycling the lead from scrap batteries using waste fluosilicic acid (H2SiF6) as electrolyte. This paper describes larger scale experiments. Anodes cast from scrap battery lead were electrorefined in a 20-L multielectrode cell for 3 to 7 days. The anodes, containing 2 to 2.5 pct antimony, were ideal for obtaining firm and adherent slime blankets. Cathode deposits, assaying 99.99 pct Pb, were obtained, with current efficiencies near 99 pct. Sludge leaching was done in 100-L tanks followed by filtering in 61 cm square vacuum pan filtersu Lead of greater than 99.99-pct purity was recovered from the filtrate by electrowinning in a 20-L multielectrode cell using insoluble Pb02-Ti (lead dioxide-coated titanium) anodes and pure lead cathodes. The fluo-silicic acid electrolyte depleted in lead was repeatedly recycled to leach more sludge, and there was no problem with impurity buildup. The amount of Pb02 formed on the anodes during electrowinning was less than 1 pct of the total lead deposited on the cathodes, as long as the phosphorus concentration in the electrolyte was greater than 1.3 giL. Emissions of lead in air were less than 10 ~g/m3, well below the proposed OSHA limit of 50 ~g/m3.

Jan 1, 1984

By D. R. Murray

"A promising long-term solution to uranium tailings reclamation has been the establishment of vegetation directly on the waste material. The soil profiles of areas vegetated for 0, 3, 8 and 10years are characterized as to the extent of soil development . The characteristics are compared with the visually interpreted soil profile. Organic matter content is presently the best analytical judge of soil development. Vegetation procedures have produced a build-up of organic matter in the top 10cm of tailings where natural microbial populations flourish. The CN ratio is high and the profile depth shallow, suggesting the need for additional fertilizer applications.IntroductionThe reduction of surface erosion and improved aesthetics of uranium tailings has been accomplished by the establishment of a vegetative cover. In 1971 research concentrated on developing methods of plant establishment at minimal cost and soil amendments on uranium tailings in Elliot Lake , Ontario. One process of stabilization used on a large scale was direct seeding of grasses and legumes into the tailings which had received only limestone and fertilizer treatments. Fertilizer additions were made for varying lengths of time in subsequent years to maintain the established cover.Maintenance-free vegetation would be possible once a soil profile developed with sufficient nutrient recycle and plant regeneration capabilities(1). Tailings vegetated in 1971, 1973 and 1978 that had received either 3 or 5 years of maintenance fertilizers were examined for soil development profiles. The extent of soil development and the relative effect of time and fertilizer would provide direction on reaching the goal of a self-sustaining cover.This paper is an abridgment of Division Report MRP /MRL 81-126 of the same title(2)."

Jan 1, 1984

By Lee J. Raabe

A specialized loading system for tensile and fatigue testing of wire rope was constructed and installed in the U.S. Bureau of Mine Wire Rope Test Facility in Bruceton, Pennsylvania. The computer-controlled closed-loop servo-hydraulic test system which can apply up to 800,000 pounds of force on the rope while stretching it up to 30 inches will be used in the development and verification of hoist rope retirement criteria for ropes in the 1 to 2 ½ in. diameter range. Characteristics and capabilities of the system are discussed.

Jan 1, 1984

By Gary L. Hundley

The Bureau of Mines has devised and demonstrated a process for recovering Ni and Co from low-grade domestic laterites. The process consists of four major steps: (1) reduction roast, (2) ammoniacal leach, (3) solvent extraction, and (4) electrowinning. Several solid-liquid separation steps are required that affect the economics of the overall pro-cess. In this study, two techniques for solid-liquid separation, centrifugation and thickening, were investigated. This report presents the results of (1) laboratory and pilot plant studies to determine parameters for sizing centrifuges and thickeners and (2) an economic study of the two techniques, based on the requirements of a commercial-size (5,OOO-tpd) laterite processing plant. Sizing and other equipment-related recommendations, based on data from the Bureau's studies, were obtained from commercial manufacturers. The costs of thickening and centrifugation, including all the unit operations affected, were determined by the Bureau's process evaluation group. The total operating costs ~or separation using the two techniques (including depreciation on the capital cost of equipment) were found to be quite close: $17.26 per ton of laterite for centrifugation and $18.15 per ton of laterite for thickening. For centrifugal separation, the greatest cost was found to be the initial capital cost for the separation equipment; using thickeners, the greatest cost was for re-agent recovery.

Jan 1, 1984

By Frank J. Foster

This Paper will deal with Bucketwheel Suction Dredging and its particular relationship to mining applications. There will be comparisons with other methods of suction dredging and descriptions of two recent bucketwheel installations in the mining area. The Directory of World Dredging Fleets published in the `larch 1984 edition of World Dredging magazine shows that there are about 1.000 conventional Cutterhead Dredges listed throughout the world with 289 in the United States. There are 242 Bucketline Dredges listed throughout the world of which only 6 are in the United States. These figures are not completely accurate because several units are known to the author that are not on the list and, of course, there may be others.

Jan 1, 1984

By A. W. Khair

Surface subsidence is a phenomenon mainly associated with longwall mining, although it can also occur if the coal pillar left to protect the surface deteriorates with time and results in the collapse of the room and pillar system. A method has been developed that utilizes physical mine models and laser holographic interferometry. This method is capable of measuring displacements as small as 5 micro- inches by means of generating displacement contours on a surface, even that of granular materials. Analysis of subsidence in room and pillar mining using models of various extraction ratios ad overburden depths along with two different types of overburden model material (sand and gelatin) has been made. The sand represented the extreme brittle conditions of geologic material while the gelatin represented visco-elastic behavior of geologic material. This paper deals with the analysis of data which has been gathered up to date, and mainly associated with the use of sand as an overburden model material. The analysis included the effect of variation of geometric parameters on surface subsidence. Among these parameters are: variation in seam depth and thickness, surface and seam inclination, and extraction ratio.

Jan 1, 1984

By T. G. Rozgonyi

The basic goal of this investigation was to determine the degree of drying of high moisture lignite through the use of high temperature and pressure steam autoclaves. Specific items studied were: a) the effect of lignite particle size, b) steam temperature and pressure required, and c) the time of ahydration. Although removal of sodium, ash, sulfur and other ash-forming minerals was not the goal of this study, basic analysis of effluent water showed organic material and alkalai metal content. Removal of inherent moisture from run-of-mine lignite was tested by lock-feeding the lignite, which was previously sized by screening into 25 kg autoclaves. High pressure, up to 4.053 MPa (588 psi), saturated steam was then introduced into the pressure reactor. Reaction time, pressure, temperature, and depressurization rates were strictly controlled for each reactor test run. Results indicate that about 80% of lignite total moisture was removed, including some of the inherent moisture, yielding a non-oxidized, and thus stable, lignite product. As stated, a side benefit occurred as some reduction of non-combustible portions of the lignite also took place. The conclusion reached as a result of the tests is that the steam-drying process can be successfully applied to reducing moisture in lignite, and may be considered for additional studies on acceleration of the coalification process. On the basis of the data presented, the author believes that lignite can be economically upgraded in steam autoclaves by simultaneously reducing the moisture content by 80 percent and the sulfur content by at least 50 percent. Upgrading the lignite by this method will result in large energy and financial savings.

Jan 1, 1984

"The Archaean komatiite-associated nickel sulphide deposits at Kambalda, Western Australia, exhibit a number of stratigraphic features that are indicative of a strong volcanic control on ore localization, including (1) a restriction to specific basal cumulate metakomatiite host units, (2) confinement within distinctive synvolcanic embayments in the footwall and (3) variations in the internal structure and composition of overlying and adjacent barren metakomatiite flow's and the distribution of interflow metasediments with proximity to the ore zones.The high magnesium content of the host units (up to 45% MgO volatile-free) in comparison with that of aphyric or spinifex- textured lavas (16-32% MgO) has been considered previously to indicate either magmas/lavas rich in intratelluric olivine or selective accumulation of olivine phenocrysts. The marked linear trend of the oreshoots, basal host units, footwall embayments and the volcanic stratigraphic relationships have been used as evidence for local linear feeding fissures. Rare relict igneous olivine in some host units is, however, demonstrably not intratelluric, and there is no direct or indirect evidence of a proximal eruptive site (e.g. footwall feeders, pyroclastic breccias, ultramafic intrusives) at Kambalda such as at some other deposits of this type. Kambalda is interpreted as a distal rather than proximal volcanic environment.Emplacement of the komatiite sequence at Kambalda was probably controlled by the locations of a few specific eruptive sites relative to regional topographic gradients and influenced by the topography of the pre-existing volcanic surface. Olivine enrichment in the basal host units occurred by in-situ fractionation and cumulus crystallization of olivine during longitudinal lava flow within linear lava conduits, possibly centralized on depressions between non-overlapping footwall basalt flows. The distinctive stratigraphic relationships are attributed to localization of lava conduits along the volcanic pitchline, flanked by more slowly moving parts of the flows. There are analogies with the physical volcanology of Modern basaltic and Proterozoic komatiitic lava flows.A corollary of this model is that the lava conduits thermally eroded and assimilated sulphidic sediments, contributing additional sulphur to sulphur-saturated komatiites or possibly inducing sulphide separation in originally sulphur-undersaturated komatiites. The latter would account for the restriction of ores to linear cumulate komatiite host units (thermally active lava conduits) and the locally mutually exclusive, but stratigraphically equivalent, relationship between the ores and sulphidic metasediments at Kambalda."

Jan 1, 1984