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By Oliver Bowles

EACH year the broad diversified field of industrial minerals offers a panorama of new and interesting developments that not only concern the welfare of the industries themselves but have a more or less direct influence on the lives of citizens at large. Thus, the home life of multirudes may be affected by new building units that transmit light through walls instead of windows, by illuminated processed marble lighting fixtures and decorations, by the vast impetus given to thermal insulation Ly .mineral wool, expanded vermiculite, and related products, and, more remotely, by fireproof rugs and drap-

Jan 1, 1937

By H. Leslie Bullock

From aluminum to zirconium, the quantitative preponderance of quartz as a gangue material is well recognized. lf this material is to be efficiently removed, its variations must be understood. Variations with temperature are especially important. Too little attention has been given to the thermal polarization of quartz. Under closely controlled conditions, electrostatic upgrading is very reliable. For efficient separation, contact charges must be fostered and charges due to radiation, surface coatings, or thermal polarization avoided. This paper lists thermal transition points of quartz and shows their effect on actual separations. Simple separation tests with all factors except temperature held constant are recommended for determining transition points. With silica making up more than 27% of the earth's crust, its oxides comprising more than 59% of all igneous rocks, and quartz accounting for most of the main free oxides, the mining engineer is in constant contact with quartz, which may occur as a valuable mineral to be purified or, far more frequently, as a gangue material to be removed as completely and economically as possible. As a means of effecting such purification or removal, dry beneficiation is becoming more and more desirable owing to local water scarcities, wet waste disposal problems, or freezing conditions. One method that has been gaining particularly rapid acceptance is electrostatic beneficiation, or the separation of dry free-flowing materials by means of opposite surface charges, differences in potential, or differences in conductivity. Electrostatic beneficiation dates back to the 1870's, but only in recent years have newly developed methods and apparatus and a growing knowledge of solid-state physics widened the field for its economical application. Because the term "electrostatic beneficiation" has been rather loosely used in the literature, it has come to include both electrostatic and electrodynamic procedures. Attracting type separators, however, in which oper- ation is based on differences of surface charge or potential, are truly electrostatic, because the separation occurs in a substantially static field set up between oppositely charged surfaces. Separations with this type of equipment may occur at potentials as low as 1000 v and seldom require potentials as high as 30,000 v. In the new contact charge dielectric separators1 the variation in charge is produced by continuous contact and separation of the particles in the moving feed stream and these charges are fostered by the use of non-conducting support and feed surfaces and by handling the feed in the form of streams of appreciable depth. This favors uniformity of feed and allows higher production rates. The distinctive surface charge differences are set up on the separation of the particles according to Coehn's Law,2 which states that equal and opposite charges are generated on the separation of any two materials in contact and that the substance having the highest dielectric constant will be positively charged. The basic contact charge concept is reliable, but all electrical charges are transient and modified by the electrical conditions of the surroundings. Pyro-electric, photoelectric and radiant effects may modify or totally destroy the contact charges necessary for efficient separation, or contact with conducting surfaces may neutralize them. Such hostile conditions must be carefully guarded against, since they have led to many costly failures in the past. The most consistent difference in surface charges to insure good separation is produced by repeated uniform contact and separation of particles in the moving stream. The thickness of the feed stream possible with this method reduces the effect of contact with the supporting surfaces, but as some contact is inevitable, the best results may be assured by having the dielectric constants of the supporting surfaces between the dielectric constants of the substances to be separated. In general, the hard smooth surface of quartz makes it an ideal substance for electrostatic separation from most minerals. For instance, with calcite, starting with a feed containing 1.9% acid insolubles, one can produce a concentrate containing 0.30% acid insolubles with a tailings containing 21.7% acid insolubles and a yield of 92.8%. The color can be held at 92 or above and the tint at 1.7 or lower. Working with specularite iron ore, laboratory work has given a concentrate of 68.8% Fe., with an iron unit recovery of 96.7%. Excellent results are also in pros-

Jan 1, 1969

By C. M. Brinckerhoff

Safety work in mining at the Andes Copper Mining Company, Potrerillos, Chile, is divided into three parts: (1) accident prevention, (2) fire prevention and protection, and (3) silicosis prevention and control. In the company's operations a steady campaign has been waged to reduce accidents and silicosis, and to prevent fires. In the following pages the safety record for the past twelve years will be examined and the methods explained by which the accident rate was reduced. Table 1 contains yearly data pertaining to the scale of the mining operations and the accident record. Block caving is used for all ore production and the tonnage mined has averaged 30,000 short tons per day for the past seven years. Table 2 classifies 44 fatal accidents which have occurred since 1935. The leading causes of accidental death are transportation of ore and use of explosives, followed in order by persons falling, falls of ground, and by asphyxiation. In the case of serious accidents, however, the greatest cause is falls of ground, followed, in turn, by ore transportation, persons falling, explosives, and asphyxiation. Accident Prevention The improvement of the safety record was obtained by a combination of many factors. In surveying the results at Andes for the past twelve years, it is possible to select some features of the present operation which have contributed to the accident record. The most important of these are: (1) good staff planning, (2) good equipment, (3) an alert safety organization, and (4) education and selection of the workmen. GOOD STAFF PLANNING As a result of good staff planning, the mine has good working conditions, namely, good ventilation, moderate temperatures and humidity, and good lighting. These factors not only reduce accidents but also improve efficiency. In haulage work, accidents have been reduced by having traffic move in a forward direction only. The latter makes possible a one-man train crew. Trains are centrally dispatched from loading drifts which are interconnected by signal lights, so that when a train in a lateral drift is given permission to move into a main line drift, a red light signals in all other lateral drifts in that area. Good track is maintained, and safety niches are required at all switch throws. Since safety niches were provided there have been no fatal or serious accidents at such points. All main line haulage drifts are illuminated by electric lights. Haulage drifts are kept clean. Adequate clearance has been provided between cars and between cars and the sides of the haulage drifts. The 4 1/2 ton Cranby type cars are equipped with roller bearings, and the 10 ton loconlotives with trolley shoes instead of wheels. These two features are responsible for improved ore haulage conditions and contribute to greater efficiency and safety.

Jan 1, 1950

By M. A. Goudie

The deposits occur in a large salt basin of Middle Devonian age. The potash, the final deposit in the salt basin, results from several interrupted cycles of evaporation and dessication. The deposits are extensive, and, at first glance, relatively undisturbed. With more and more wells being drilled, it has now become evident that salt solution has played a large part in changing the original deposits, resulting in some cases in partial to complete removal of the potash and the underlying halite. The most dominant factor in the removal of salt by solution appears to have been tectonic movement and consequent faulting, probably of relatively minor dimensions but of major importance. Evidence which indicates the tilting of the evaporite basin to the north and northwest is shown by the changing pattern of the basin during succeeding eras of potash deposition. The potash minerals of most importance economically are sylvite and carnallite. Reserve calculations indicate that 6.4 billion tons of recoverable high grade potash in K2O equivalent exist in the basin. The Devonian salt basin, which contains the Saskatchewan potash deposits, extends from just east of the foothills in Alberta, north as far as the Peace River area, across Saskatchewan and into Manitoba as far east as Range 10 west of the First Meridian and south into Montana and North Dakota (Fig. 1). The basin is closed everywhere except to the northwest. The known potash deposits are confined almost entirely to the Province of Saskatchewan, with the exception of a small area in western Manitoba bordering the Saskatchewan boundary. The following discussion will concern only the Saskatchewan part of the basin. The evaporite series in the basin is defined as the Prairie Evaporite Formation of the Elk Point Group, of Middle Devonian age. Recent work done by potassium-argon dating methods has indicated an Upper Middle Devonian (Givetian) age of from 285 to 347 million years for the potash. The Elk Point Group consists in ascending order of the Ashern, Winnipegosis, and Prairie Evaporite Formations. The Ashern formation, with an average thickness of 30 ft, sometimes called the Third Red Bed, consists of dolomitic shales and shaly dolomites. The Winnipegosis, is a reef-type dolomite, usually with good porosity, and in many cases oil-staining, although to date no production has been obtained. The thickness varies from 50 to 250 ft. The Prairie Evaporite formation, varying from 0 to 600 ft in thickness, consists of halite with interbedded anhydrite and shale, with considerable amounts of potassium salts in the upper part of the formation. The potassium salts are chiefly chlorides, although very minor occurrences of sulfates have been re- ported. The anhydrite beds do not appear to be continuous, although generally one or two bands of anhydrite underlie the lowest potash zone and are used as marker horizons. The shale occurs as seams interbedded with the salts, as large irregular inclusions in the salts and as very fine particles in intimate mixture with the salts. The Prairie Evaporite Formation is overlain by the Second Red Bed member, the Dawson Bay Formation and the First Red Bed Member of the Manitoba Group, listed in ascending order. The Red Beds are shales which vary in color from red to green, maroon, grey, grey-black, and reddish purples. They serve as marker horizons for coring the potash. The Second Red Bed averages 14 ft in thickness, the First Red Bed 35 ft. The Dawson Bay Formation, which everywhere overlies the First Red Bed and the Prairie Evaporite Formation in the area under discussion, is a reef type of carbonate, in some places limestone, in others limestone and dolomite, with vugular to pinpoint porosity averaging 130 ft in thickness. In some parts of the area, it has a salt section near the top of the formation, usually with interbedded shales and limestones. In other parts of the area, it is waterbearing and the salt is absent. Detailed mapping has indicated that the areas in which the Dawson Bay is water-bearing are areas which have been disturbed by faulting. Where the Dawson Bay is salt-bearing, the porosity has been plugged by salt. The total thickness of the salt varies from between 600 to 700 ft in the center of the basin to zero at the northern edge of the basin (Fig. 2).* The salt-free area in the center of the Province is believed to have resulted from removal of salt by solution. Evidence from several wells suggests that salt removal has been a continuing process from the time of deposition to the present day. One well drilled between the Quill Lakes for potash information encountered

Jan 1, 1961

By A. J. Williams

THE province of Saskatchewan, situated in the center of the Great Plains region of Canada, has, like most prairie areas, an essentially agricultural economy. Most of its population of about 860,000 is located in the southern half of the province in the farming and ranching areas. To the north of the prairie is a broad forested belt supporting a considerable timbering industry, and the northern one third of the province is glaciated pre-Cambrian rock formation. This latter area is relatively barren of vegetation, but the presence within it of a considerable variety of radioactive, noble and base metals, and industrial minerals has been shown by prospecting in recent years.' Glacial Geology The Keewatin ice sheet, considered to have accumulated in the country to the west of Hudson Bay in Pleistocene time, covered at its maximum advancement almost all of Saskatchewan and extended south of the international boundary. Only in the Cypress Hills in the southwest and around Wood Mountain in the south central portion of the province did the preglacial formations escape the action for this glacial period. The bedrock of the plains and forest areas therefore is overlain by moraines and modified glacial drift, which vary in thickness from a few feet to 400 or 500 ft.' Glacial action in the pre-Cambrian area of the province was largely erosional, most of the more recent formations and some of the pre-Cambrian rock being transported out of the area to the south and west. It has been estimated that about 13 pct of this area is composed of lakes and rivers not too adaptable to rail or water transportation, so that until the use of aviation for exploration purposes became general, development of the area was slow. To the south, the heavy mantle of glacial drift has to some extent deterred the discovery of industrial minerals in the bedrock underlying the forest and prairie regions3 At the same time, this drift contains numerous deposits of those most elementary and necessary industrial minerals, sand and gravel. Sedimentary Basin The major feature of the sedimentary deposits underlying the plains regions is the basinal structure known as the Moose Jaw syncline, which runs from the southeast corner of the province in a northwesterly direction. To the west of this syncline the formations curve upward, then have been faulted and further upthrust to appear at the surface in the foothills of the Rockies in Alberta; to the east and north they curve upward into Manitoba and northern Saskatchewan, but the surface contacts are covered mostly with glacial drift.238 The axis of the syncline dips to the southeast, so that there is also an upward trend of the formations along the axis to the northwest. In illustration of the regional structure underlying the province, the pre-Cambrian basement has been logged in drillholes at the following depths in several locations: Ogema (south central), 9390 ft; Gronlid (northeast), 2599 ft; Vera (northwest), 4422 ft; Big River (north northwest), 2348 ft. Fig. 1 indicates the general surface geology of the province, ignoring such glacial overburden as may overlie many of the bedrock formations. Also indicated is the approximate location of the axis of the Moose Jaw syncline.' Industrial Minerals Clays: The province is fortunate in possessing a widespread distribution of clays of ceramic value, ranging from those used for heavy structural products to the high grade pottery and china clays. Shales suitable for brick and tile production are found in the Upper Cretaceous and Tertiary formations across the south of the province where the glacial drift is thin or nonexistent. Many deposits of glacial lake clays suitable for such wares are found scattered over the rest of the province south of the pre-Cambrian area. The Whitemud formation of the Upper Cretaceous is a narrow sedimentary band of secondary clays found intermittently at points across the south of the province where glacial action did not disturb or remove them.' In the southwest corner of the province, around Eastend in the Frenchman River valley, the refractory clays of this formation are contaminated somewhat with iron compounds or other alteration products of basaltic rocks. This eliminates the use of those clays in true whitewares, as they fire to creamy buff shades at the lower temperatures and to a blue-specked grey at cone 8 to 12, (2280°F to 2390°F), the range commonly used in firing whiteware. However, for use in the production of colored artware, caneware, stoneware or crockery, and sewerpipe, this type of clay makes an excellent body that requires little or no addition of flint, feldspar, or other fluxing materials such as are required in the higher class of ware.' It is not a grade of clay that can be shipped great distances to the manufacturing centers, but a market for considerable tonnages has developed at nearby Medicine Hat, where cheap natural gas is available for the firing of the ware. Farther east in the south central portion of the province, the clays of the Whitemud formation are generally more refractory and white burning. The formation is divided into three zones, consisting of white clays, brown shale, and white sandy clays.

Jan 1, 1953

By Elliot P. Rexford

B. C. Burgess-—Prior to hearing this paper presented at the San Francisco meeting, I travelled by car from Yuma, Ariz., across south-central California and up through the San Joaquin Valley. After hearing the paper I returned by the coast route to San Diego then along the Mexican border to Yuma. The striking feature of these trips, related to this paper, was the dry river and creek beds at a time of year not the dry season. Contrasted with this was the wasteful use of water in irrigation canals and laterals. Poland says "at least 90 pct of the ground water pumped is used for irrigation." That being the case, it would appear that first consideration should be given to conservation of this use. Probably a small part of this is actually reaching the plants. Some measure of this loss between pump and crops would be revealing. Methods that might be employed to reduce this loss are pipe lines and spraying of some crops such as the banana planters are using in Central America. Another idea which might be investigated is to line canals and ditches with some water-repelling mineral like pyro-phyllite. Perhaps a comparatively thin sprayed-on

Jan 1, 1951

By Elliot P. Rexford

B. C. Burgess-—Prior to hearing this paper presented at the San Francisco meeting, I travelled by car from Yuma, Ariz., across south-central California and up through the San Joaquin Valley. After hearing the paper I returned by the coast route to San Diego then along the Mexican border to Yuma. The striking feature of these trips, related to this paper, was the dry river and creek beds at a time of year not the dry season. Contrasted with this was the wasteful use of water in irrigation canals and laterals. Poland says "at least 90 pct of the ground water pumped is used for irrigation." That being the case, it would appear that first consideration should be given to conservation of this use. Probably a small part of this is actually reaching the plants. Some measure of this loss between pump and crops would be revealing. Methods that might be employed to reduce this loss are pipe lines and spraying of some crops such as the banana planters are using in Central America. Another idea which might be investigated is to line canals and ditches with some water-repelling mineral like pyro-phyllite. Perhaps a comparatively thin sprayed-on

Jan 1, 1951

By A. E. Chute

The shortage of sulfur is not only continuing but appears to be worsening, attended by steadily rising prices. At the same time emphasis on air-pollution abatement is also increasing. These two factors, a rising market and the growth of environmental attention, have encouraged producers to carefully review all possible sulfur sources. As a result, production of sulfur from hydrogen sulfide occurring in petroleum is receiving greater attention than ever before. Until about a decade ago, the practice of recovering sulfur from hydrogen sulfide separated from gases (either found naturally or generated in desulfurization of liquid petroleum) was wide1y recognized but contributed little to total free-world sulfur production. However, during the past ten years, the production of sulfur from this source has increased so rapidly that it now accounts for a substantial portion of total production. This trend shows no signs of slackening, and current forecasts predict that recovered sulfur may become the dominant source of supply within ten years, exceeding mined sulfur production. This paper is intended to list sulfur sources and relationships, and to discuss the potential of producing sulfur from petroleum. The processing involved, in addition to product storage and transportation will also be discussed along with important economic aspects of sulfur recovered from hydrogen sulfide. For many years, most of the world's elemental sulfur has been produced from salt domes, predominantly by the Frasch process. During the past decade, however, another production source has developed so quickly that it is expected to surpass the Frasch production sources within a short time. This new source lies in the petroleum gases and liquids from which dramatically increasing quantities of elemental sulfur are being recovered. In the phraseology of the trade, the sulfur so obtained is know as "recovered sulfur," a term which does not, as one might expect, include sulfur recovered from other sources such as smelter gases. The growth rate of recovered sulfur compared to that of Frasch sulfur, total elemental sulfur, and total Free World sulfur in all forms is shown in Fig. 1 Since 1963, sulfur consumption has exceeded production,with the natural result that the price of sulfurhas continually increased. The posted price reported for f.o.b. Port Sulphur, La., has risen from as low as $18 per ton in 1962 to $32.50 per ton in mid-1967. With freight and other charges, delivered prices have of course run much higher, amounting to $45 or $46 per ton on the east and west coasts. In some cases, spot sales for as much as $60 have been reported. Although it is playing an ever-increasing role in the sulfur market, recovered sulfur was originally a by-product of the removal of hydrogen sulfide from natural and petroleum refinery gases. Today, however, it is often the most valuable product of a multi-product processing facility. Since there are two major sources of recovered sulfur—production and refining processes —natural gas is included with liquid petroleum for purposes of this discussion. Sulfur from these sources is produced in the form of gaseous hydrogen sulfide which is removed from a gas stream and converted to elemental sulfur. Gases in which hydrogen sulfide occurs naturally are natural gas and the gas produced from a high=pres-sure crude=oil or condensate field.

Jan 1, 1969

By Thomas P. Forbath

THE sudden realization that known sulphur reserves amenable to mining by the Frasch hot water process are nearing exhaustion focused attention on widely scattered surface deposits throughout the world. These deposits are not necessarily of lower sulphur content than ores located underneath Louisiana or Texas salt domes which usually average about 30 pct sulphur disseminated in limestone matrix. Their near surface occurrence, however, renders exploitation by the Frasch process impossible. As is well known, the Frasch process depends on the presence of 500 to 1000 ft of overburden and cap rock above the sulphur deposits to permit melting underground sulphur in place by diffusing hot water under pressures of 200 to 600 psig in the formation and raising the molten sulphur to surface by air lift. This process renders possible the production of pure sulphur which is 99.5 pct pure without any subsequent treatment. Surface deposits contain sulphur in the same range of concentrations as the salt dome deposits, i.e., from 10 to 50 pct sulphur, associated with various gangue materials such as silica, limestone, and gypsum. The pirincipal distinction, then, does not lie in the percentage of sulphur contained in the ore, but in the geological nature of the deposit. A recent study' of the world sulphur supply situation estimated 1950 sulphur production in the free world countries at 5.6 million long tons, of which the United States produced 5.2 million tons, or 93 pct of the total. While America's domestic needs alone would have been covered by national production, about 1.4 million tons were exported during the same year. Despite all the steps which are being taken to restrict use of elemental sulphur and to force the fullest possible development of alternate sulphur sources here and abroad, the deficit in elemental sulphur production will probably increase with time. As a result of intensive prospecting for oil throughout the Gulf Coast area discovery of significant new salt domes is held unlikely. With the growing scarcity of sulphur and what appears to be an inevitable rise in price, recovery from deposits not amenable to Frasch-process mining assumes greater economic importance. Untapped Reserves The most important deposits in this category are located in Sicily, where elemental sulphur occurs in Miocene limestone and gypsum formation. Sulphur content of these ores ranges from 12 to 50 pct with an estimated average of 26 pct. Although quantitative estimate of these reserves is not available it is held that they exceed 50 million tons of sulphur. Similar deposits occur also on the mainland which contribute about one-third of Italy's total current annual production of 230,000 tons, but these are known to be nearing exhaustion. Significant surface deposits of volcanic origin are located in South America, Japan and western United States, silica being characteristic gangue con-stituent. The largest of these deposits are in South America. More than 100 extend over a zone 3000 miles long, paralleling the west coast of South America. 'Total sulphur content of these deposits has been estimated to be as high as 100 million tons. The main islands of Japan also possess at least 40 known volcanic sulphur deposits with probable reserves of 25 to 50 million tons.' Prospected reserves in western United States might amount to 2 million long tons, principal deposits being located in the northwestern part of Wyoming, southern Utah, and eastern California. Volcanic deposits of lesser importance are found around the Mediterranean, in Turkey and Greece, and in Africa, Egypt, Abyssinia, and Somaliland. Beneficiation Methods Different methods of beneficiation have been used in these various locations. In Italy the Calcarone kiln and Gill regenerative furnaces are used exclusively. Both utilize heat liberated by burning part of the sulphur in the ore to liquify or vaporize the remaining sulphur, which is recovered by solidification or condensation. The Calcarone kiln is of conical shape, generally 35 ft in diam at base and 18 ft high. A kiln of 25,000 cu ft capacity burns for about two months and yields about 200 tons of sulphur. The Gill furnace consists of a series of chambers with domed roofs. Sulphur is burned and melted in one chamber at a time and the hot combustion gases are used to preheat the ore charge in the subsequent cell. These furnaces operate on a cycle of 4 to 8 days. The recovery yield of both systems is about 65 pct. Sulphur losses amount to 25 pct through the combustion to sulphur dioxide; about 10 pct is retained in discarded calcines. Ores containing less than 20 pct are not considered suitable as furnace feed. These methods are not only wasteful because of the low recovery obtained, but represent a serious atmospheric pollution problem. Sulphur produced ranges from 96 to 99 pct purity and thus does not match Texas or Louisiana sulphur. Owing to the present shortage, sulphur in the Middle East sells

Jan 1, 1954

By W. A. Hutchins

Water laws important to the mining industry are those which govern or affect the right to use water, to dispose of water after using it in mining or milling, and to discharge waste material into watercourses. They include statutes and court decisions having general applicability, as well as others that pertain specifically to mining. THE INDUSTRY'S CONTRIBUTION TO WESTERN WATER LAW Despite sharp differences of opinion, the water law the Spaniards brought to the Southwest appears to have included some form of appropriation of water. The Mormons, who settled in Utah in the mid-nineteenth century, also developed a system of appro-priative water titles. But by far the most profound impact on western water law was made by the gold-seekers who flocked to the Sierra Nevada foothills of California after the discovery of gold in 1848. Much of the gold was extracted from the ground by hydraulic or placer mining, and so the miners' rights to the use of water became fundamentally important. Since there was no organized government in the foothills and no laws other than those made by the miners, they helped themselves to the land, the gold, and the water needed to work their claims.1 They established and enforced regulations governing the acquirement and holding of mining claims and their rights to the water they needed.' In 1879 Justice Field, former Chief Justice of the California Supreme Court, spoke for the U. S. Supreme Court in saying that the miners were "emphatically the law-makers, as respects mining, upon the public lands in the State."" Rules of the California mining camps were based on two essential principles: 1) priority in discovering claims and appropriating water by diverting it from streams and putting it to use, and 2) diligence in working claims and applying water in mining. The customs so developed, which were copied in mining areas of other states and territories, were enacted into law in one western jurisdiction after another. They form the basis of what is called the arid-region doctrine of prior appropriation of water, which received the attention of Congress in legislation recognizing and protecting appropriations of water for mining, agriculture, and other purposes on the public domain.' In several western states a great number of water cases decided in the early years involved relative rights to the use of water for mining purposes or for milling connected with mining." The miner's inch, the customary unit for measuring water in the mining camps, is still used in various western communities, although its relation to the cubic foot per second varies from one area to another. Undoubtedly, the miners of a century ago made the major contribution to the appropriation doctrine as it is now recognized and applied throughout the West. What inspired the California gold-seekers to develop these principles? Thoughtful writers have pointed out that their regulations and customs were strikingly characteristic of much earlier mining enterprises in the Old World.D It is said that the right of free mining and free use of flowing water therefor —so similar to the California conditions and practices—-was a part of the customs of Germanic miners in the Middle Ages, that it spread from middle Europe to other countries and colonies, and that the doctrine of prior appropriation was widespread in the important mining regions of the world. Certainly the Forty-niners came to California from many countries. It does not tax the imagination to consider that they may have brought with them some knowledge of the old Germanic customs and applied this knowledge in their new environment. RIGHTS TO USE OF WATER IN GENERAL In the West, rights to the use of water of watercourses fall into two categories—appropriative and riparian. The doctrine of prior appropriation is recognized in each of the 17 western states. The riparian doctrine is recognized concurrently with the appropriation doctrine in some of these states but has been abrogated in the others. The riparian doctrine prevails generally throughout the East, although there is now considerable interest in developing something else. Generally speaking, the appropriation doctrine has been highly developed in the West, whereas the principles of riparian doctrine have been comprehensively established in only a few states throughout the country. The subject of water rights is a big one. Space permits no more than a brief discussion of aspects that bear upon the title of this article. RIGHTS OF PRIOR APPROPRIATION Fundamental to the doctrine of prior appropriation is the principle first in time, first in right. Although in some states there are statutory exceptions. the original and still generally prevailing rule is that the first one who initiates a right to divert and use water of a stream, and who completes his undertaking with reasonable diligence, acquires thereby the first right of appropriation of the specific quantity of water involved. Each succeeding right in point of time is junior to all earlier rights but senior to all later ones. The practical effect of this priority system is that when the water supply is not enough for all, the earliest rights must be fully satisfied before any water may be taken by those later in time. Acquirement of Appropriative Rights: Each of the 17 western states has a statute under which water may be appropriated pursuant to a prescribed procedure. Generally, the first step to be taken by the intending appropriator is to file application in the office of the State Engineer for a permit to make the appropriation. In most but not a11 states, valid ap-

Jan 1, 1961

By W. Z. Rogers

U.S. feldspar output sold or used in 2004 was estimated to be 790 kt (871,000 st), valued at $43 million free-on-board plant. This was below 2003 and about the same volume as 2002. The strong housing market in the United States maintained demand for ceramic tiles, plumbing fixtures, and fiberglass insulation requiring feldspar and shipments of glass containers increased by about 4 percent. Imports of ceramic tiles and plumbing fixtures continue to increase, taking the place of U.S. produced goods, and the feldspar required to make them. Output included flotation concentrates, feldspar content in feldspar-silica mixtures, potash feldspar and aplite.

Jan 1, 2005

By D. W. Olson

Garnet has been used as a gemstone for centuries. However, garnet’s angular fractures, relatively high hardness and specific gravity, being chemically inert and non-toxic and free of crystalline silica, and its ability to be recycled make garnet ideal for many industrial applications. Garnet is the general name given to a group of

Jan 1, 2005

By W. Z. Rogers

U.S. feldspar output sold or used in 2005 was an estimated 760 kt (838,000 st), valued at $44 million free-on-board plant. This was below the 2004 volume and was the second year of decline in a row. Output included flotation concentrates, feldspar content in feldspar-silica mixtures, potash feldspar and aplite. The strong housing market in the United States maintained demand for ceramic tiles, plumbing fixtures and fiberglass insulation requiring feldspar. Shipments of glass containers were about the same as in 2004. Imports of ceramic tiles and plumbing fixtures continued to increase, taking the place of U.S.-produced goods and the feldspar required to make them. For 2005, 80 percent of the ceramic tiles sold and 50 percent of the plumbing fixtures sold in the United States were imported. Since 2000, manufacturing plant closures in the plumbing fixtures industry have reduced the demand for feldspar and feldspar-silica mixtures by 100 kt (110,000 st). Increased demand from the ceramic tile industry has partially offset the lost volume.

Jan 1, 2006

By Oliver Bowles

PRICES of quartz sold in the United States in 1938 ranged from $1.15 to $36,000 a ton. This startling variation was due simply to the differences between glass sand and rock - crystal, materials that are virtually the same in composition. It illustrates the complexities in qualities, uses, and values of industrial minerals. It is generally stated that mineral deposits are exhaustible resources which can never be replaced when depleted. This statement is no longer true with respect to certain industrial minerals now recovered in increasing quantities from that most inexhaustible of all sources of supply, the ocean. Salt has long been obtained from sea water, particularly on the Pacific Coast, and reference was made a year ago to the large bromine recovery plant at Wilmington, N. C. Now the Westvaco Chlorine Products Corp. is operating a large plant at Newark, Calif., having a capacity sufficient to recover daily from the ocean raw materials that will produce 60 tons of various magnesium products. Lime is used to precipitate the magnesia from salt-water bittern. The products are chiefly magnesium carbonate for chemical uses, periclase and other refractories, and oxychloride cement for flooring.

Jan 1, 1939

By Oliver Bowles

DELICATE PLANTS are now put to bed for the winter under glass-wool or rock-wool blankets. Thus arise new and unexpected uses for non-metallic materials and rocks and, at the same time, certain unique uses are fading out; for instance, the Italians have taken steps to bar the use of salt for money in Ethiopia. Novel sources of supply find a place in the record of recent achievements as exemplified in the migration of the frontiers of industrial mineral exploitation beyond the land area of the earth to include the ocean. Salt, of course, has been recovered from the sea for years but the treatment of enormous quantities of sea water for bromine has lately added to the importance of the ocean as a reservoir of mineral wealth. Increased use of non-metallic minerals in the commercial and economic life of the country is reflected in the wide scope and activity of the Industrial Minerals Division of the Institute. The outstanding recent achievement of the Division is the publication of a 955-page volume on industrial minerals and rocks, comprising 48 commodity chapters each written by an authority on the subject.

Jan 1, 1938

By R. D. Irvine

Enhanced concern for protection of the environment and attendant actions by environmental regulatory authorities in support of this concern are influencing to varying degrees the demand and supply of a range of industrial minerals in a number of jurisdictions. These influences take a variety of forms. In this paper, the author seeks to delineate certain broad trends which are occurring relative to industrial minerals and the environment and then, through a series of examples, outline opportunities, developments, and impacts respecting a number of industrial minerals produced and consumed in Canada and the United States.

Jan 1, 1995

By Robert D. Irvine

"Enhanced concern for protection of the environment and attendant actions by environ-mental regulatory authorities in support of this concern are influencing, to varying degrees, the demand and supply of a range of industrial minerals in a number of jurisdictions. These influences take a variety of forms.In this paper, the author seeks to delineate certain broad trends which are occurring relative to industrial minerals and the environment and then, through a series of examples, to outline opportunities, developments, and impacts respecting a number of industrial minerals produced and consumed in Canada and the United States."

Jan 1, 1996

By H. M. Woodroffe, H. K. Conn, S. J. Rice

World production of asbestos is estimated to be at a current level of almost 3.5 million tons, having more than doubled in the past ten years. A substantial part of the increase has been due to a rapid expansion in the Soviet Union. Production from that country during 1964 is estimated at 1.5 million tons and, as a consequence, Russia has displaced Canada as the leading world producer. Although traditionally the asbestos mining industry has been centered near Sverdlovsk in the Urals, two new producing areas have been under development for some time. It is expected that a new mine will be in operation in 1965 near Kiembi, Kazakhstan, some 300 miles south of Sverdlovsk, and an- other mine at Aktrovak in Tannu-Tuva, west of Lake Baikal. These developments will provide a significant increase in the production capability of Russia. Although internal consumption is expected to increase with the addition of new asbestos- cement producing facilities now under construction in Russia, there is some speculation that exports will also increase.

Jan 2, 1965

By Gill Montgomery

At this moment in the history of the world, the all- pervading and universally most important fact is that the world population is beginning to outgrow its food supply, and the United States has suddenly lost its ability to give away huge food surplus to any nation in the world with a food shortage problem. This, of course, means that, all of a sudden, our government must completely reverse its former bureaucratic stance regarding crop controls and agricultural price supports, to out-right incentives to increase farm production and bring more idle land into food-growing use.

Jan 2, 1967

By Alfred W. G. Wilson

THE ultimate purpose of the Chemical Manufacturer is to produce consumer products which can be sold to customers. Such production and sales can be continued only if the operations yield a profit to the manufacturer and if the products meet the requirements o the consumer--bath parties to the transaction must be satisfied. There are vast numbers of consumer products, made by chemical pro-cesses. The production of some of these ultimate products may involve the use of several intermediate chemicals, applications of few or many different processes, and the utilization, somewhere in the series of operations, of a variety of raw materials. On the other hand, some ultimate products have a very simple chemical history between raw materials and end products. There are no chemical products in use which are completely independent of the mineral industry. For many, the association is direct and obvious; for others, it may be indirect and even obscure. Analyses of the process and raw-material ancestry of a very large number of consumer products would suggest that many products are derived from Industrial Mineral products directly, that there are many in which the connection is indirect, and that there are only a few products with which industrial minerals are not in some way or other associated. The vast majority of the more important chemical products, and especially the basic chemicals from which other products are made, are directly dependent for their production upon Industrial Minerals or their derivatives. In the preceding part of this paper, for each raw material mentioned some references have been made to the leading chemical products based on this material. This, however, is only part of the story, because in most cases the consumer product can be made from any special raw material mentioned only by the use of other materials or chemicals made from them. The production of consumer chemicals is really possible only through an intricate interlocking of processes, materials, and apparatus.

Jan 1, 1940