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By Saluja, Sunder S.

Man had to learn to break rocks as early as the Stone Age, when they formed his main source of raw material. He started with chipping and over the years has reached a stage where he can employ atomic blasts and break, with one blast, millions of tons of rock. In between these two extremes there have been several stages of development including fire setting, use of the expansion of water on freezing in chipped cracks in cold climates, the use of low or deflagrating explosive black powder in about the 17th century, the use of high explosives with the discovery of nitroglycerine in 1846 by Sobrero, followed by the monumental discoveries of the great Swedish scientist Alfred Nobel in the latter half of the nineteenth century.

Jan 1, 1968

By Brij M. Moudgil

Florida produced more than eighty percent of domestic phosphate during 1974. This amounted to more than thirty-five million short tons. Ninety percent of this production was used in the production of fertilizers. Other uses of phosphate include food preservatives, fabric dyes, optical glass, photographic films, soaps, plastics, pharmaceuticals and animal feed ingredients. Marketable phosphate rock projections for the nest decade forecast a very healthy growth for the Florida phosphate industry. Associated with the expansion, however, are the corresponding problems of water conservation, air and water pollution and land reclamation. Recognizing mining as an interim land use, the industry is presently engaged in a very active reclamation program. The proximity of the central Florida deposits to rapidly developing urban areas makes it important to undertake successful and well planned reclamation programs. Water use and conservation is of vitil importance to the industry. Water withdrawal from existing aquifers and discharges into drainage systems are closely regulated by state agencies. Water is stored and recycled to maximize usage. In some instances water is even returned to major aquifers through a series of recharge or connector wells. The phosphate industry has spent over 200 million dollars in the past decade for research, development and implementation of pollution abatement and water conservation systems.1 The following discussion outlines various phases of phosphate mining in central Florida today, with emphasis on research in waste disposal techniques and progressive land reclamation programs.

Jan 1, 1975

C. A. ROSE, New York, N. Y. (written discussion *).-Without doubt the excellent results obtained at Ajo will cause surprise among metallurgists; 75 per cent. average capacity and 80 per cent. extraction during the first year of operation of a plant using a new metallurgical process are figures that speak for themselves. It is obvious that the most troublesome feature of the process is the fouling of solutions. The effects of this are most evident in the electrolytic tank house; but apparently the solutions are so heavily loaded with salts that their dissolving power is also impaired. This is indicated by the fact that copper comes into solution during washing after the leaching of the ore is completed, as shown by the decreasing ratio of acid to copper in the various washes tabulated in Table 4, and also by the fact that 4.9 per cent. of the total copper in the ore remains in the tailings in a soluble form. Even though the extraction in leaching and the ampere efficiency in electrolysis would be benefited by keeping the salts in solution at a lower concentration, it is doubtful whether it would pay to decrease these salts by discarding more electrolyte without other changes in the, process, since this would increase the amount of cement copper produced, which is already very large. If, however, it would not disturb the process otherwise, this object could be accomplished by increasing the range of electrolysis, so that solution going to the tank house would contain, say, 4 per cent. copper and 1 per cent. acid, and the solution returned to the leaching plant 1 1/2 per cent. copper and 4.8 per cent. acid, and by increasing the volume of solution to be discarded, this to be taken from the electrolyzed solution returned to the leaching plant. By this arrangement, more salts will be removed from the system per ton of cement copper produced; and if sufficient solution is discarded to keep the iron content down to 1 1/2 per cent. it would he feasible to recover the copper from

Jan 4, 1919

By J S. Dunlop

At its most basic level, minerals project management may be broken down into a series of logical chronological phases, described in this paper as: exploration, discovery; scoping and pre-feasibility; feasibility and approval; project financing and commissioning; operation; expansion and closure. Each phase has its own peculiarities and challenges, any one of which can potentially upset the forward progress of a minerals project.Reference is made to each of these project phases based on the authorÆs many years of first-hand experience, in an attempt to identify issues within the project management spectrum where additional caution may be warranted. Left un-addressed, these issues can cause undue delays in the project timeline, ultimately delaying approval at significant project cost.Finally, reference is made to the Mine ManagerÆs Handbook recently published by the AusIMM which is an excellent project management resource, considered to be very relevant for minerals treatment plant managers, whether the context be constructing, operating, expanding or shutting down.CITATION:Dunlop, J S, 2013. Mineral project management - A perspective from four decades in the industry, in Proceedings MetPlant 2013 , pp 13-27 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

Jul 15, 2013

By R. A. Ynchausti

In January 1993, Pyramid Resources began implementation of a supervisory expert control system at a U.S Cu concentrator. The objective of this control system was to improve plant profitability through unit operation optimization and integration. This paper documents the key aspects of the project, including: economic and associated benefits, system architecture, concepts of implementation, process control strategies, practical aspects of implementation and conclusions. The implementation of expert control at this concentrator has resulted in an estimated benefit of $50,500 per day. This is a net result of improved tonnage, reduced reagent consumption, improved concentrate grade and reduced energy per ton produced.

Jan 1, 1995

By V. R. Shea-Albin

This U.S. Bureau of Mines report discusses elastic wave velocity and attenuation behavior as an indicator for changes in load and structural integrity of coal samples. Measuring changes in compressional (P)-wave and shear (S)-wave attenuation and velocity under uniaxial and triaxial compression tests revealed their effectiveness for distinguishing changes in applied load and structural failure of samples. The velocity and attenuation values were used in further calculations such as ratios of P-wave to S-wave values, dynamic elastic constants, normalized velocities, and attenuation coefficients to reveal trends for loading and failure. The behavior of both P-wave and S-wave attenuation and velocity together define distinct and consistent phases of load change and failure for uniaxial and triaxial tests. The S-wave velocity and attenuation illustrate changing axial load and initial development of microfractures within the sample preceding structural failure more clearly than those of the P-wave. The attenuation and velocity ratios and dynamic elastic constants (except the bulk modulus) respond to closure of small preexisting fractures within the coal sample with initial loading to failure of coal samples. The attenuation coefficients and normalized velocities reveal trends similar to those shown by velocity and attenuation.

Jan 1, 2010

By Abu B. Siddique, Anthony S. Crincoli

"The New Jersey Turnpike Section 2 widening program consisted of widening between Interchange 6 in Mansfield Township, Burlington County and Interchange 9 in East Brunswick Township, Middlesex County. To accommodate large volume of traffic the roadway was widened from 6 to 12 lanes with major modifications performed at four interchanges. The Section 2, NJTA Interchange 6 to 9 Widening Program is a 4.2-mile section of Turnpike roadway which included a total of 12 new or modified structures. In order to facilitate the construction process Section 2 was divided into three construction contract packages. This paper will cover the last and final Contract T869.120.203 which is 1.7 miles in length. The work generally consisted of eight new ramps connection to and from the toll plaza to the new inner and outer roadways. New mainline bridges were constructed over several ramps. A new bridge was constructed to take northbound outer lanes traffic over two ramps along with new mainline bridges over Black’s Creek, Georgetown Road, and Laurel Run. In addition, a new bridge was constructed to take a ramp over Laurel Run and the existing U-turn Bridge was replaced with a new one.For Contract T869.120.203 a total of 74 five-foot diameter drilled shafts has been constructed to support all pier foundations for bridges. Three drilled shafts were tested using Osterberg Load Cells to verify the estimated shaft resistance during design phase. One Osterberg Load Cell test was performed on a demonstration (sacrificial) shaft and the other two Osterberg Load Cell tests were performed on production shafts. This paper compares the estimated total, side and tip resistances with corresponding measured total, side and tip resistances and provided recommendations for future design purpose.INTRODUCTIONTo accommodate large volume of traffic the New Jersey Turnpike Authority (NJTA) decided to widen Section 2, which included Interchange 6 through Interchange 9. The Section 2, a 4.2-mile section of Turnpike roadway that was widened from 6 to 12 lanes with major modifications performed at four interchanges.The New Jersey Turnpike Authority (NJTA) procured AECOM to perform engineering services for the final design of Section 2, NJTA Interchange 6 to 9 Widening Program. Section 2 is a 4.2-mile section of Turnpike roadway that will widen from 6 to 12 lanes and will include a total of 12 new or modified structures. It encompasses modifications of the existing and the design of four new ramps at Interchange 7. The project also includes the modification of two local roads over the mainline, two local roads under the mainline, two maintenance U-turns, and retaining walls. In addition, the project consists of the design of noise walls, sign structures, storm water management basins and the more typical drainage, utilities, lighting, roadway, ROW, and signing and striping design."

Jan 1, 2015

By Ricardo Tadeu Meneses Sodré

O mercado siderúrgico vive nos últimos anos um de seus maiores desafios de toda história. As empresas buscam, a todo instante, formas de redução de custo visando a manutenção da operação dos seus ativos. A gestão eficiente de estoques é parte fundamental para a redução de custos e garantia da segurança das operações da empresa. Para a classificação da criticidade dos sobressalentes não existe um critério claro e bem definido. Outro ponto importante é que sobressalentes realmente importantes podem não estar contemplados no estoque. O trabalho estabelece um modelo para melhorar a gestão de sobressalentes na ArcelorMittal Tubarão incluindo a correta identificação dos sobressalentes críticos, a priorização desses sobressalentes com foco no que deve ser comprado imediatamente e o que podemos postergar, a reclassificação dos sobressalentes de manutenção quanto a sua criticidade e à criação de alternativas para gerenciar e manter nos estoques os sobressalentes realmente críticos e dispor/criar alternativas para os sobressalentes não críticos. Essa nova metodologia foi aplicada como piloto na Linha de Acabamento e Linha de Tesoura da ArcelorMittal Tubarão indicando ganhos expressivos.

Aug 17, 2017

Laminated ceramics have received widely scientific and commercial attention because their properties, such as mechanical properties and electrical properties, can be tailored by adjusting the structure, thickness and composition of the different layers. For example, ferroelectric Bi4T13O12 (BIT) which has a positive temperature coefficient of dielectric constant (TE) can be used to modify the negative of typical microwave dielectric ceramic BaNd2Ti4O12(BMT). However, BaNd2Ti4O12/Bi4Ti3O12/BaNd1Ti4O12 (BNT/BIT/BNT) laminated ceramics could not be prepared by the general method because the optimal sintering temperature of BaNd2Ti4O12 ceramic (around 1350°C was much higher than that of Bi4Ti3O12 ceramic (around /1100°C). in this research, a new method of spark plasma sintering (SPS) combined with post-sintering was successfully proposed to prepare BNT/BIT/BNT laminated divided proposed to prepare ceramics. It was divided into three steps. In first step, the BaNd2Ti4O12 ceramics were prepared by conventional sintering method. In second mop, the calcined and pre-pressed Bi4Ti3O12 powders were sandwiched between BaNd2Ti1O12 ceramic pellets and spark plasma sintered at 900'C for 10min to synthesize BNT/BIT/BNT composite ceramics. In the last step, a post-sintering was employed to reoxidize the partially reduced BNT/BIT/BNT composite ceramics. The results of scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and electron probe mircoanalysis (EPMA) showed that BNT layer and BIT layer were well bonded and no significant interfacial infiltration between them was observed. The sandwiched BNT/B1T/BNT ceramic with 10.7% BIT in volume has a dielectric constant of 92.8, a low dielectric loss of 0.0068 and a small temperature coefficient of dielectric constant v/35 ppm/C at 1 MHz.

Jan 1, 2003

By John Birkinbine

(New Haven 'Meeting, February, 1909.) AWAKENED public interest in efforts to conserve natural resources will certainly be appreciated by the members of the American Institute of Mining Engineers, and a discussion upon conservation may well form a part of one of the Institute meetings, for the records of papers and discussions which appear in the 38 volumes of its Transactions are replete with evidence of effort's in this direction. Every process which reduces the fuel consumed or the power applied per unit of product; every utilization of waste material, or employment of that formerly rejected, to obtain something of value ; every feature of construction or operation which lessens the labor required or increases the output per employee, is an advance in the direction of true conservation. This may not appear from the records of late conferences or from published articles, in which the effort seems to be concentrated upon reducing the consumption and presenting to the people of the country estimates of exhaustion of natural resources. I rejoice in the awakening of public interest in a matter so important for the present and future welfare of our nation; I appreciate the possibility of much good following conferences of the Governors and delegates from various States and from national societies; and I recognize the interdependence, not only of different States, but of contiguous nations. In fact, the marvelous development of transportation by land and by water, and the decreasing rates at which commodities can be moved great distances, have in many cases practically obliterated geographical boundaries, and nearly every country on the globe can either market its product in other lands or draw upon them for raw or manufactured materials ; hence, conservation is an international subject.

Apr 1, 1909

By Raymond W. Hiteshue, Sam Friedman, Robert Madden

Experiments were made in a semicontinuous unit to provide engineering data for designing experimental continuous systems . These systems would be used to study the hydrogasification of hvab coal and char (from lowtemperature carbonization ) to high - Btu gas . In experiments at 800 ° C and with a coal residence time of several seconds , yields of hydrocarbon gases increased from about 2,000 scf / ton of maf coal at 250 psig to 7,000 scf at 1,000 psig . With 15 minutes residence time , yields increased from 8,000 scf/ton of maf coal at 250 psig to 17,500 cubic feet at 1,000 psig . In all cases , small quantities of heavy oils were produced along with the gaseous hydrocarbons . Production of oils could be minimized with a corresponding increase in gaseous hydrocarbons by increasing the retention time of the volatiles within the hot zone . Yields of gaseous hydrocarbons from char were slightly greater than from coal under similar conditions . Although the hydrogasification reaction is very pressure dependent , substantial quantities of coal (40 to 60 percent ) could be reacted to gaseous hydrocarbons at pressures as low as 50 psig provided reaction temperatures were increased to 1,200 ° C. It was also demonstrated that a hvab coal could be hydrogasified continuously without incurring agglomeration . This was achieved by dispersing coal in a relatively large reactor with concurrent flow of hydrogen . At 1,000 psig and 800 ° C , it was possible to react about 35 percent of the coal and to produce a gas containing up to 52 percent methane .

Jan 1, 1964

By Altair Vieira de Souza

O tântalo é um dos metais mais versáteis na engenharia, podendo ser utilizado desde tecnologias espaciais até a biomedicina. Isso incentiva o estudo de novas tecnologias de obtenção do metal a partir do óxido de tântalo (Ta2O5). Neste trabalho é apresentada uma nova rota de obtenção de tântalo metálico a partir da reação magnesiotérmica do óxido de tântalo, usando como ignição o plasma de hidrogênio. Propõe-se um método alternativo ao processo Hunter, que apesar de ser o mais utilizado, é lento, pouco eficaz na produção de grandes quantidades e gera rejeitos degradantes ao meio ambiente. Foram misturados pós de magnésio (Mg) e Ta2O5 em recipiente projetado para permitir o efeito de catodo oco, e então aquecidos a plasma até a temperatura de ignição. Os experimentos foram realizados variando a pressão de trabalho buscando a redução completa do Ta2O5. Os produtos resultantes desses processos foram analisados por equipamentos de difração de raios X. Os resultados mostram que é possível a obtenção de tântalo metálico (Ta) a partir da redução metalotérmica do óxido de tântalo (Ta2O5) usando como agente redutor o magnésio e o plasma de hidrogênio como agente de ignição. A redução completa do Ta2O5 é obtida com o uso de pressões de 4,5 e 5,0 Torr.

Oct 30, 2017

By W. D. Watts

El presente texto describe la elaboración del diseño de administración de negocios. Para ello, se revisa la prospección geológica, la prevsión de mercado, ubicación geográfica, factibilidad, plan de producción, selección de instalaciones y de beneficio, plan de producción, programación, evaluación financiera, financia del proyecto, ingeniería de detalle, adquisición, gerencia de construcción, proyecto, control financiero, organización y provisión de afectivos.

May 1, 1980

By A. Frits van Tol, Rodriaan Spruit, Jan H. van Dalen

"Abstract In recent years, there have been major problems with deep excavations in urban areas supported by diaphragm walls. In some cases, like the fatal Nicoll Highway collapse in Singapore the quality of the D-walls was not the cause. However in other projects, like the problems with the major leak in the walls of the Boston Big Dig and with leakage in a few projects in Belgium and The Netherlands was related to poor D-wall quality. Leakage through the D-walls at the joints in deep excavations led in these cases to very serious settlement behind the walls, in the case of the North- South line in Amsterdam, there was severe damage to historical buildings. This paper describes ongoing research that focusses i on acquiring more knowledge on and improvement of D-wall installation, in particular the flow process prior and during casting ii on the detection of anomalies prior to excavation and iii on the composition of the concrete mixture in view of a better and more sustainable concrete quality of D-walls.INTRODUCTIONIn the case of deep excavations in urban areas close to neighbouring buildings, diaphragm walls are one of the best feasible solutions for the retaining structure. Although the costs of D-walls generally exceed the costs of alternative wall solutions, the advantages are decisive in many situations. The main advantages of D-walls are the limited impact of the installation on the built environment, the high stiffness and bearing capacity and the retention of water, even at considerable depths. This makes Dwalls often the preferred solution for deep excavations Sometimes the D-walls are the temporary support while for the final stage a complete concrete box is constructed in the excavation. In many other cases the D-wall has the permanent function of retaining soil as well as groundwater.In the last ten years, there have been major problems with deep excavations in urban areas supported by diaphragm walls. In some cases, like the fatal Nicoll Highway collapse, 2004 , the quality of the Dwalls was not the cause. In other important failures like the collapse of the Archives in Cologne, 2008 and Dubai Infinity Tower Flooding, 2007 a combination of design and quality issues played a role. However, the major leak in the walls of the Boston Big Dig was related to poor D-wall quality (McNichol, 2000). Van Tol et al, (2010) describe a number of case studies in Belgium and the Netherlands, with leakage through the D-walls at stop end joints. In several cases with deep excavations these leakage caused serious surface settlements behind the walls. In the case of the North-South line in Amsterdam, there was severe damage to historical buildings. All these cases have generated considerable additional costs and delays, and subsequently public and political concern. Van Tol et al. (2010) present several possibilities to improve the quality of D-walls.Other disputes related to D-walls deal with the quality of the concrete and the sustainability of D-walls applied as a permanent wall. In particular the porosity of the concrete cover is sometimes problematic."

Jan 1, 2014

By Richard A. Thomas, Liming Yuan, Wei Tang, JOHN SOLES

Lithium-ion battery applications are increasing for battery-powered vehicles because of their high energy density and expected long cycle life. With the development of battery-powered vehicles, fire and explosion hazards associated with lithium-ion batteries are a safety issue that needs to be addressed. Lithium-ion batteries can go through a thermal runaway under different abuse conditions including thermal abuse, mechanical abuse, and electrical abuse, leading to a fire or explosion. The NIOSH Mining program is conducting research to prevent and respond to lithium-ion battery fires for battery electric vehicles in the mining industry. In this study, experiments were conducted to investigate the effectiveness of different suppression systems including dry chemical, class D powder, and water mist for lithium iron phosphate battery pack fires. The effects of activation time and release time of the water mist system on the suppression of lithium-ion battery fires were studied. The results of this study may be helpful for developing strategic firefighting and response plans for battery-powered vehicles used in mining.

Feb 17, 2024

By R Bourcier, T Rafferty

Following an underground coal mine explosion, it is important that ventilation is quickly restored to ventilate the mine and affect a mine rescue. To achieve this, surface ventilation fans must be suitably protected from explosion damage, but still able to be quickly restored.A review of all Australian coal mine regulations was carried out, revealing that Australia has no prescriptive regulations that specify the design of explosion relief panels and the protection of ventilation fans in the event of an underground explosion.To better define the level of protection required, this paper reviews and extracts details from relevant major international regulations and standards on the subject.A suitable design methodology for the protection of ventilation fans is presented that could be applied in Australia, using a combination of explosion relief panels, appropriate isolation of the fan, and ventilation shaft/mine design.CITATION:Rafferty, T and Bourcier, R, 2013. The protection of surface ventilation fan installations from underground explosions, in Proceedings The Australian Mine Ventilation Conference , pp 169-173 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

Jul 1, 2013

By Willy Ank de Morais

Este trabalho objetiva a descrição dos diferentes desempenhos sob corrosão de uma junta soldada de uma tubulação de aço carbono obtida pelos consumíveis ER 70S-3 e ER 80S-Ni2, empregada em plataformas offshore. Amostras de tubos e chapas de aço carbono foram soldadas, através do processo TIG, empregando tais consumíveis, e submetidas a ensaio de corrosão acelerada por perda de massa em uma cuba com fluxo constante de água destilada e ácido sulfúrico a 98%. Posteriormente, as amostras foram caracterizadas de modo a quantificar as possíveis alterações nas características mecânicas, estruturais e superficiais. O resultado final foi que a corrosão ocasionada na junta com o consumível ER 80S-Ni2 apresentou características diferenciadas e mais deletérias ao desempenho estrutural do material, apesar de ser o consumível inicialmente recomendado para a aplicação.

Oct 30, 2017

By David Roncalla, Emma Flores, Juan Pérez

Se ha co creado a Rurana, Centro de Innovación Social de Asociación Pataz, para coadyuvar en el abordaje de los desafíos de triple impacto, basados en la innovación como un evento sistémico con direccionalidad de largo plazo, pero con pasos de corto y mediano plazo para desarrollar las capacidades requeridas para el logro de Misiones, propósitos de gran impacto enmarcados en la teoría de Mariana Mazzucato.

Sep 29, 2023

By Victor A. Phillips

A series of strips of a Ni-12.7 at. pct A1 alloy were Prepared containing cubical y'(NisAl) precipitates with edge lengths from 60 to 500A. A particle-free solution-tveated strip was included for cornparison. They weve cold-rolled 95 pct and the effects of particle size on the isochronal (1/2 hr) annealing behavior between 300° and 950°C studied (by hardness and light and electron microscopy). It ulas inferred that the particles deformed with the lnatvix becoming lamellae which remained coherent. Comparison with published data fov pure nickel showed that aluminum greatly re-tavded softening and recrystallization, but it made little difference whether or not particles were present. The presence of pakticles led to a heterogeneous distribution of precipitates after annealing at 700" to 750°C. Recovery was not detected. Recrystallization occurred by the growth of new grains into unrecrys-tallized material. In a previous study by the author,' the growth of Ll2-type ordered yl(Ni3Al) precipitates was followed in Ni-12.7 at. pct A1 alloy as a function of aging at 600" and 700°C. The particles were showo to be cubical in shape in all sizes from 50 to 3000A and remained coherent. This work was used as a guide in preparing the starting structures for the present study of the effect of these particles on the annealing behavior of heavily cold-rolled strip. Another question of present interest was whether dislocation and particle hardening were additive, since the structures before rolling ranged from solution-treated to peak-aged to overaged. Also, precipitation might occur on annealing after cold-rolling. Reference may be made to other papers2"5 for previous work in this relatively unexplored field and only some recent work will be mentioned her:. phillips2 studied the effect of deformable 0 to 590A-diam cobalt particles on a Cu-3.23 pct Co alloy rolled 95 pct and found that the particles, which rolled out into thin lamellae, impeded softening and recrystallization. Tanner and servi3 likewise studied the annealing of cold-swaged Cu-2 pct Co alloy containing 150A-diam particles and found impeding effects. Haessner et a1.,4 on the other hand, found that incoherent 2-p-diam non-deformable particles of B4C (0.04 vol pct) tended to increase the rate of recrystallization of copper rolled up to 95 pct reduction. They attributed this to the formation of new grains at the particle interfaces. Humphreys and artin' found that nondeformable silica particles in copper rolled to 30 pct reduction accelerated recrystallization if the particle spacing was large and retarded it if the spacing was smaller. Haessner et a1 4 also studied a rolled Ni-Cr-A1 alloy; however, the particles of y'(Ni3Al)-type precipitate were not put in before rolling, but separated during the isothermal annealing at 750°C. No previous work appears to have been carried out on the effect of y' (Ni3A1) particles on the annealing of Ni-A1 alloy. Hornbogen and ICreye7 redetermined the solubility c of aluminum in nickel as a function of temperature T and showed that it was given by c = 32.6 exp(-1940/RT). This relation gives aluminum solubilities of 15.1, 14.2, 12.0, and 10.7 at. pct at 1000°, 900°, 700°, and 600°C, respectively. The phase precipitated from the nickel-rich solid solution is fcc y1 (Ni3A1) which has a Cu3Au -type ordered structure8 and remains ordered up to 1000°C.B EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE The alloy used was identical with that used before. Chemical analysis showed 6.27 wt pct (12.71 at. pct) Al, the principle impurities being 0.065 pct Fe, 0.022 pct Co, 0.020 pct Cu, and 0.004 pct C. Bar stock of 1 in. diam was cold-swaged to % in. diam, cold-rolled to 0.300-in.-thick strip, and annealed at 900°C in dry hydrogen. It was cold-rolled to 0.100-in. thickness and solution-treated for 1 hr at 1000°C while sealed in a quartz tube in argon, quenching in iced brine with the aid of a device to snap off the nose of the tube. Lineal analysis gave an average grain size of 0.055 mm. Pieces of strip were aged at 700°C in vacuo for 30 min, 51/4 hr, and 1 week to produce nominal average particle widths of 60, 150, and 500A, respectively, as known from the previous work.' The average diamond pyramid hardness was determined. The heat-treated strips were rolled from 0.100 to 0.005 in., a reduction of 95 pct, and the rolled strips stored at about -5°C. Small pieces were annealed within 1 week for 30 min at temperatures from 300° to 950° ±2°C in a horizontal vacuum furnace. Strips were withdrawn into a cooling zone, giving an estimated initial cooling rate from 950°C of about 50°C per sec. Average diamond pyramid hardnesses were determined on a lightly electropolished spot on the surface of each strip using 300-g load. Each point on the softening curves represents a separate annealed specimen. Sections containing the rolling direction were examined by optical metallography. Selected specimens were electrothinned to the center plane' and examined by transmission at 100 kv in a Siemens Elmiskop I electron microscope. It is well-known that changes in the structure tend to occur when a deformed strip is electrothinned below a thickness of a few hundred angstroms, although this is less serious with a material such as nickel which has a high melting point, and also is apt to be less serious when particles are present. Observations were nevertheless confined to thicker regions of the foils with estimated thicknesses over 1000A. No changes were observed due to beam exposure.

Jan 1, 1968

The mineral industry is an important element in the human environment and in varying degrees contributes to the general standard of living throughout most of the world, both by supplying the basic materials required for heavy industry, transportation, construction, scientific equipment, and many labour saving tools and also by its contribution to the international economy.When projecting population growth and per capita resource utilization against a finite amount of nonrenewable mineral resources, it is apparent that at some future time, if the established trend continues, the supply of industrial minerals will progressively become exhausted according to their relative scarcity and world demand.In one way or another all of nature's mineral resources are used in the sel'vice of man. Some of the products of their manufacture are essential to the survival and further development of our civilization, others are luxuries, desirable but not essential. Marine vessels are essential to maintain a flow of resollrces around the world, and as trade increases the size of the fleet will grow and the quantities of metals needed will be greater.The commodities they transport, may be used in an inefficient or extravagant manner causing unnecessary depletion which may adversely affect the activities of future generations. An example that comes readily to mind is fuel oil, the international transport of which uses a vast tanker fleet. When refined, large quantities of motor spirit are used in motor vehicles. The U.S.A. alone uses 70 billion gallons annually in the 90,000,000 automobiles in use.Much of this is used in private cars-of which there is one for every 2'3 people-for transport between home and city. Well organized community transport would serve the same purpose, conserve a scarce commodity, take some of the stress out of livingdriving in a major city can hardly be considered a relaxing experience-and minimize the problem of atmospheric pollution.Whilst man has demonstrated his great versatility...

Jan 1, 1973