Search Documents

By William Winsor, Harold L. Snyder

"AbstractShould oil and gas be proven in commercial quantities on the Labrador Shelf, current technology is not adequate for production operations in this severe environment, which includes yearly invasion of pack ice and icebergs. The fishery of this section of the North Atlantic is a vital resource to which a major oil spill or blow-out would impose an intolerable burden, This means that production systems must be designed and built to be fail-safe.The experiences of mining in Bell Island and Cape Breton have shown that it is possible to operate beneath the ocean floor, and this technology may hold the key for safe, reliable and economic production, This paper attempts to define particular problems and outline possible solutions.IntroductionOUR DISCUSSION is subject to the assumption that large hydrocarbon reservoirs will be discovered in the sedimentary basin of the Labrador continental margin. The petroleum industry has not attempted to operate in a harsher area. The Labrador coastline is exposed to North Atlantic storms and icebergs year’round, Arctic pack ice occurs up to six months of each year. However, there is no doubt that, if sufficient hydrocarbon potential is outlined, development will proceed."

Jan 1, 1977

By Q. Cheng

This paper introduces the multi fractal interpolation method (MIM)developed for handling singularities in data analysis and for data interpolation. The MIM is a new moving average model for spatial mapping and interpolation. The model decomposes the raw data into two components: singular and nonsingular components. The former can be characterized by a localized singularity index that quantifies the scaling invariance property of measures from a multifractal point of view. The latter is a smooth component that can be estimated using ordinary kriging or other moving average models. The local singularity index characterizes the concave/convex properties of the neighbourhood values. The paper utilizes a binomial multiplicative cascade model todemonstrate the generation of one- and two-dimensional data with multi-scale singularities which can be modelled by asymmetrical multifractal distribution. It then introduces a generalized moving average mathematical model for analysing and interpolating data with singularities. Finally, it is demonstrated by a one-dimensional case study of de Wijs’ data from a profile in a zinc mine, that incorporation of spatial association and singularity can improve the interpolation result, especially for observed values with significant singularities.

Jan 1, 2015

By E. T. Turkdogan

The activities of SiO2, FeO, and Fe2O3 are calculated from previous experimental data on the activity of oxygen in Fe-Si-O melts at 1550°C. Using the oxide-activity data, the free energy of formation of fayalite from its oxides is evaluated for 1550°C. A number of investigators1-4 contributed to the study of the state of oxidation of iron in SiO,-FeO-Fe,O3 melts and the phase equilibria in the system Fe-Si-O. In a more detailed study, Schuhmann and Ensio5 and Michal and Schuhmann% easured the state of equilibrium in the SiO,-FeO-Fe,O3 melts saturated with y-iron or silica or both under low-oxygen potentials and within the temperature range 1250" to 1350°C. Similar measurements were also made by Turkdogan and Bills7,' over wide ranges of composition and oxygen potentials at 1550"C. Using the experimental data on the oxygen activities in the ternary system, Schuhmann' calculated the activities of silica and ferrous oxide in Si0,-FeO-Fe2O3 melts for 1350°C. Adequate knowledge on the activities of the constituent oxides of melts is essential in the study of reaction-equilibria and reaction-kinetics in oxide-melts. With this in view, the activities of oxides in SiO2-FeO-Fe2O3 melts at 1550°C are computed using the experimental data of Turkdogan and Bills7'8 on the oxygen activities in these melts.

Jan 1, 1962

By Juliana Fonseca Paim

A eficiência energética na indústria vem ganhado destaque no contexto atual. Um dos grandes desafios da atualidade é de utilizar os vários milhares de medidas de processos industriais coletadas, armazenadas e, utilizadas como indicadores capazes de contribuirem para a melhoria da eficiência energética. O princípio é combinar métodos analíticos avançados e aprendizagem de máquina aliado a um forte envolvimento dos membros da equipe da usina para se instalar um Sistema de Gestão de Energia (EnMS) em conformidade com a ISO50001. O objetivo seria de proporcionar a usina economias significativas em termos de consumo de energia. Este trabalho resume as etapas críticas para a implementação do EnMS para processos complexos: dignosticar a variabiliade do consumo de energia, identificar uma proposta viável para consumo de energia, envolver todos os níveis de produção nos workshops de análise de causas, implementar modelos preditivos de monitoramento em tempo real, dar o suporte para a tomada de decisões e, fazer modelos de relatórios de desempenho. Um exemplo com uma indústria química será apresentado e demonstrará como a metodologia pode ser aplicada na otimização das áreas de produção e de distribuição de vapor através de da melhoria da gestão operacional. A experiência adquirida para esse caso enfatiza a importância em potencializar a utilização dos dados de monitoramento e, o envolvimento dos operadores para poder entender as práticas operacionais principais, promovendo por conseguinte, uma cultura de eficiência energética.

Sep 25, 2017

By Steven W. Schmauch

The Ruby Mountains study area encompasses 75,615 acres managed by the U.S. Bureau of Land Management in Madison County, MT. A mineral survey was conducted by the U.S. Bureau of Mines and U.S. Geological Survey in 1984. Bureau of Mines personnel reviewed literature and county mining records, and examined prospects or mineralized areas to determine mineral resources. Geological Survey personnel evaluated the area by geochemical sampling and geophysical surveys. There are no organized mining districts and no current claims in the study area. Significantly mineralized quartz veins, shear zones, or talc bodies apparently do not exist within the study area. A small part of the Kelly Iron Deposit is inside, but dips away from the study area; the main occurrence is estimated to have 32 million tons of subeconomic resources that average 21 percent iron.

Jan 1, 1985

By A. V. Shroff

The Indian Standards code of practice for design and construction of underreamed piles contains provision for installing such piles in expasive soils. In recent years, a large amount of research work has been carried out in the analysis, design, construction and performance of underreamed piles in expansive soils. This paper suggests that the results of this research field tests should be included in the code. Various additions and modifications as well as deletions that should be incorporated in the code are discussed.

Jan 1, 1996

By E. Esponosa-Gomez, J. A. Finch, A. R. Laplante

"Water quality plays an important role in oxide flotation. The effects on selective flotation of fine (1-16 um) pyrochlore of two types of water used at the Niobec concentrator, potable and plant recycle, were assessed. Several pyrochlore collectors and silicate depressants were tested. Water effects were different for each mineral-reagents) combination. In general plant recycle water decreased selectivity and increased reagent consumption. Interpretation of results is given in terms of electrokinetic effects, hydrolysis of cations, and mineral-collector interactions. Two techniques of treatment for plant recycle water, cation precipitation and zeolite adsorption were assessed. The former was found to be more effective under the tested conditions but recycle water continued to give poorer selectivity than the potable.INTRODUCTIONWater quality plays an important role in selective flotation. Specific effects have been reported by many workers (1-6) and in general the better the water quality the more selective is flotation. Water composition depends on origin and the minerals being processed. For example pulp containing salt-type minerals (calcite, apatite, dolomite) will contain more Ca and Mg cations than that from a sulphide deposit. Another source of water contamination is the flotation reagents added to the pulp, particularly if water recycling is practiced."

Jan 1, 1986

By João Lucas Ribeiro e Fernandes, Geraldo Lúcio de Faria, Altair Lúcio de Souza

A ovalização de bobinas é um problema recorrente no processo de fabricação de tiras de aços médio carbono por laminação a quente. Mesmo com o sucesso da etapa de laminação, a ovalização posterior de bobinas pode ocorrer, gerando transtornos à operação e aumento de custos de fabricação. Alguns autores apontam que o fenômeno de ovalização de bobinas pode ocorrer devido a aspectos metalúrgicos, mecânicos e geométricos. Estudos disponíveis na literatura técnica já exploraram as possíveis causas mecânicas e geométricas. Entretanto, existem poucos dados disponíveis que abordem o aspecto metalúrgico, ou seja, o efeito da decomposição tardia da austenita durante, ou mesmo após a etapa de bobinamento. Nesse contexto, este trabalho se propôs a avaliar, por meio da aplicação da técnica de dilatometria, a possível influência das transformações de fases tardias como uma das causas de ovalização em bobinas de um aço do tipo SAE 1050. Ciclos térmicos que simulam, com boa aproximação, algumas possíveis condições de resfriamento acelerado e bobinamento da tira foram aplicados em corpos de prova padronizados em um dilatômetro de têmpera. Diferentes combinações de velocidade de resfriamento e temperaturas de bobinamento foram avaliadas, sendo possível sugerir que uma diminuição na velocidade de resfriamento da tira após a laminação e um pequeno abaixamento na temperatura de bobinamento, em relação aos valores atualmente utilizados na indústria, pode diminuir significativamente a influência da componente metalúrgica na ocorrência da ovalização nesse tipo de aço.

Oct 18, 2019

By I. A. Khabarova

The paper presents the results of experimental investigations of the effect by high-power nano-second electromagnetic pulses (HPEMP) on change of surface composition, physical-chemical and flotation properties of pyrrhotite, and search of optimal combination of flotation reactants providing increase of metal extraction from disseminated copper-nickel ores. Preliminary electropulse effect on products before flotation allows to create optimal conditions for flotation separation of pentlandite and pyrrhotite owing to forming the new phases and defects on the surface of sulphides. It was established, that the yield of monomineral fractions of pyrite, pyrrhotite and chalkopyrite increases by 5%~15 %, compared with flotation with one butyl xanthenes (BX), during usage of combination of thionic carbamate (isopropylmethylthionocarbamate (ITC) or isopropylethyl- thionocarbamate (Z-200) with butyl xanthate (BX). Sorption of investigated reactants and strength of their fixing on the surface of minerals are examined; it helped to reveal the cause of rise of floatability of sulphide minerals for the case of combination of reactants. Preliminary high-pulse processing and reactant conditions with usage of combination of thionic carbamate and xanthate have been tested on the sample of disseminated copper-nickel ore from Norilsk region.

Jan 1, 2014

By L. Jones, S. R. Lawrence, A. R. Holloway

Whilst dense medium separation is best known for its ability to concentrate diamond and coal deposits, the process is now being employed in southern Africa as a pre-concentration step to improve the economics of platinum group metal and nickel ores. DMS plants built for these industries (such as the 1600tph unit at Tati Nickel, Botswana), are spearheading an expansion in this area by reducing mine and process operating costs yet maintaining economic metal recoveries. This paper provides an overview of DMS technology and examines the economic benefits available to North American operators and projects, with recent case studies as reference.

Jan 1, 2009

By O. Jerez, A. Novoselov, L. Gutiérrez, J. Morales, U. Kelm

"In Chile, the evaluation to reprocess tailings for elements other than the traditional Cu, Mo, Au, and Ag, as well as projects to implement long-term monitoring of mining residue sites are key elements of the government’s roadmap laid out for the mining industry for the next two decades. Characterization routines for tailings and mining residues in general have to be adapted from traditional ore and gangue mineral and micro-chemical studies. This contribution summarizes key aspects for the regional mining industry for a basic characterization of tailings with emphasis on small- to medium-size operations with limited in-house facilities and funds to carry out extensive characterization programs. The oldest tailings in Chile were deposited almost a century ago; this fact gives importance to the recovery of past ore /gangue feed information, process circuits and changes (e.g. acid to alkaline flotation), process water provenance and recovery, meteorological registers, and routines of filling a tailings impoundment. Basic characterization should include X-ray fluorescence spectrometry combined with laser diffraction (LD) granulometry followed by X-ray diffraction (XRD), optical microscopy (OM) and automated mineral analysis (AMA) on a reduced set of samples identified by hierarchical cluster analysis. For this detailed stage, only coarse tailings are recommended for direct a study by microscopy and automated mineralogy (P80 >100 µm); for fine tailings (P80 ~30 µm) a combination of XRD and deposit type adapted sequential extraction are more informative options. In particular, for XRD of clay phases, losses of crystallinity may result in deviation of spectra from standard reference phases due to prolonged storage. To monitor surface alteration, scanning electron microscopy can be complemented by Raman spectroscopy to detect residual reagents on mineral surfaces. For reactivity modeling BET measurements are essential."

Jan 1, 2018

By Mary Ann Bennett, Val Nichols, Colleen Proctor

"In 1997 when Royal Oak Mines Inc. went into receivership, the mineral processing technicians (mill operators) who had been working at Giant Mine in Yellowknife, Northwest Territories for most of their career walked out with no credentials to serve as testimony of their knowledge and skills.As a result of new diamond mining activity and the establishment of socio-economic agreements, mining industry representatives approached the Department of Education, Culture and Employment (ECE), Government of the Northwest Territories, in 1999. They requested support and direction to promote training and recognition for mineral processing technicians at BHP’s (BHP Diamonds Inc.) Ekati mine. ECE recommended the development of occupational standards and certification.This paper describes the development process and end products that resulted from this collaborative project between industry, government and education. In addition, industry representatives involved in the project share their views on the development process and the benefits of standards and certification.The conclusion invites industry members to support national occupational standards and certification with their associated benefits: standardized training in the workplace and institutions, proof of competence for hiring, recognition of prior learning, and a nationally and internationally recognized credential.INTRODUCTIONSwiftly changing labour market demands are nothing new in the North. The fur trade and mineral discoveries have brought employment to workers in a feast and famine cycle for decades. In the late 1990s, the Giant, Con, Lupin, Polaris and Nanasivik mines were nearing the end of productive runs. Many experienced workers found that without credentials, they had no proof of their abilities to offer prospective employers."

Jan 1, 2005

By Dean L. Millar

Measures taken by mining companies around the world to reduce their carbon footprints are becoming increasingly important in the sector securing its social licence to operate. The options for measures reduce to three categories of activity: i) demand reduction by avoiding unnecessary waste of supplied energy, ii) improving the utilization of energy that does have to be consumed and iii) adopting low carbon energy production options?including renewable energy. As well as the environmental imperative, as the prices of electricity, gas and liquid fuels increase, so the economic case for activities i) to iii) gains higher priority, especially in such an energy intensive industry. The specific energy consumption for certain upstream minerals industry operations in Canada is reported to be as follows: underground mining: 99.5 kWh/tonne mined; surface mining: 11.7 kWh/tonne mined; base metal processing: 81.4 kWh/tonne milled; gold processing: 99.6 kWh/tonne milled. Around 508 kWh/tonne (slag) of heat is reported to be available in cooling slag from 1500°C to 25°C; an amount that is simply indicative of the energy intensity of downstream smelting and refining operations. Low carbon, energy saving technology options that are available to mining industry companies lead to projects with return rates that must compete alongside other capital intensive projects considered by mining company boards. Energy projects frequently involve longer payback periods and lower rates of return than those of competing bids for capital, such as those for development of new mineral properties. For energy services companies (ESCOs) that specialize in the financing, construction, and the efficient operation and maintenance of energy projects, the same returns and payback periods may be considered acceptable or even attractive. For the ESCO, the key commercial risk mitigating factor is a securing a long term contract for the supply of energy.

May 1, 2011

By Liaqat Ali, Robert Chapman, Asghar Ali, Mohammad Tahir Shah, Seema AnjumKhattak, Mohammad Farhan

Alluvial gold is abundant in the Quaternary deposits of the Kabul and Indus rivers in District Nowshera, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. Understanding the provenance of alluvial gold using morphology and elemental composition could be helpful in developing an exploration strategy of regional benefit. Detailed morphological studies of gold grains revealed high flatness index values which are indicative of a distal source. Compositional studies of 58 gold grains using SEM and EMPA showed broadly similar Ag ranges (1– 15 wt%) for each sample and occasional Cu values in individual gold particles to 0.4 wt%.Whilst the Ag profile is not diagnostic, the Cu values are compatible with derivation from either porphyry systems or ultrabasic rocks. The complex geology of the drainage catchments could host gold mineralization of other styles, but larger sample suites would be required to refine the current interpretation to establish whether particles which are simple Au-Ag alloys could be derived fromorogenic or epithermal sources. This scoping study has demonstrated that the compositional and morphological studies of gold grains are useful in providing information regarding the nature and location of the source of placer gold in areas where there is limited information on the nature and location of in situ mineralization.

Oct 6, 2020

By Arturo Ressi di Cervia

Construction of the drilled shafts for the Brightman Street Bridge Replacement Project were not only challenging due to working over the water but were also challenged by changed soil conditions, concurrent work being performed by an adjacent contractor on the same project, environmental restrictions and severe winter conditions. A total of 36 x 8 feet diameter drilled shafts with 7.5 feet rock sockets were installed for the East and West bascule piers. This project also included Osterberg Cell load testing on two production drilled shafts at each the East and West bascule piers. The results from the load test program were used to fine tune the design of the drilled shaft rock sockets. From a constructability standpoint the reverse circulation drilling method with a pile top drill rig proved to be an excellent choice for drilling the overburden and rock sockets of the large diameter deep drilled shafts.

Jan 1, 2003

By A Melloy, D Holt, M Jurak

Oaky North is AustraliaÆs highest producing underground coal mine. In 2011, the mine produced 8.7 Mt of high-quality coking coal. The high quantities are a result of the constant strive for optimising the operating time of major production units, which involves investing numerous resources, including diesel equipment, in supporting and maintaining their operation.In July 2011 it was identified that the diesel particulate matter (DPM) levels in the underground workings were above acceptable levels, due to the high level of diesel activity. Over the next 12 months, several controls were implemented to reduce exposure to personnel: the main ventilation system was upgraded; the production forecast was adjusted to better manage the diesel fleet, removing surges in diesel usage; and an electronic diesel tag board was introduced to centrally manage the distribution of diesel usage around the mine.From the start of the campaign in emission reduction, an intense DPM monitoring regime was established. Within a few months of the introduction of the centralised tag board, there was a major reduction in emission levels. After the installation and commissioning of the new main fans, the emission levels dropped further, such that over-exposures are now a rarity.Oaky North continues to explore new systems to better utilise their diesel fleet while still maintaining control over DPM emissions.CITATION:Melloy, A, Holt, D and Jurak, M, 2013. Reduction in diesel particulate matter at Oaky North, in Proceedings The Australian Mine Ventilation Conference , pp 187-190 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

Jul 1, 2013

By Stephen C. Tadolini, Raymond A. Mazzoni

The International Ground Control Conference in Mining has always provided an open forum for the publication, presentation, discussion, and often heated debate on roof bolting systems mostly with attention to how, when, and why they work. During the last 24 Conferences at least 170 papers have been presented by International Experts on these “simple” devices that range in length from 30-inches to 20 ft and from 5/8 to 2 inches in diameter. Roof bolts are primarily mechanically anchored, glued, cemented, or driven. Bolts are placed vertically, angled, or tied together with special fixtures (trusses and slings). They have been termed active, passive, stick-slip, and several other descriptive acronyms or mining slang expressions. This retrospective paper will present the changes in bolt types and usage, point out some of the biggest myths and hail the most significant advances (according to the authors’ opinions of course).

By R. W. Hyde, S. E. Eaton, B. S. Old

One of the most important problems facing the steel industry at the present time is that of maintaining at a minimum the sulphur content of many grades of steel where sulphur is known to have harmful effects On both quality and yield. The present outlook in this struggle to reduce the amount of sulphur in steel is rather gloomy since the sulphur content of the raw materials available in the United States is gradually rising, with little relief in sight. A flow sheet of sulphur in the steel process is shown in Fig I. The values used here were obtained by averaging coke oven and blast furnace data at No. 5 furnace in Cleveland and are considered typical for high top pressure practice. The sulphur evolved in the blast furnace top gas was obtained by difference and since the amount is relatively small, little significance should be attached to this particular value. From Fig I it is apparent, however, that coals used in the production of metallurgical coke represent by far the largest single source of sulphur in steel-making. As an indication of the decrease in quality of these coals as regards sulphur content the weighed average annual sulphur analysis of the coals supplied to two different steel plants, since 1925, is plotted in Fig 2} The sharp rise since 1940 is strikingly apparent. Another indication of this trend is found in estimates of coking coal reserves. Thus in the case of Pittsburgh seam coals available in Allegheny, Fayette, Greene, Washington, and Westmoreland Counties in Pa. as of Jan. 1937 only 25 pct of the coal reserves would contain less than 1.50 pct sulphur after washing.2.3 Many of these lower sulphur reserves have been seriously depleted in recent years because of accelerated war demands. still another demonstration of the increasing sulphur content of coals on a country-wide basis is found in a report by the Bureau of Mines4 which shows a steady increase in the sulphur content of coke made in the United States. It should be noted that this increase continues in spite of the wider use of coal washing in recent years. Sulphur occurs in coal in three forms, pyritic (FeS2), organic sulphur, and a small amount of sulphate sulphur (CaS04). The sulphur is subsequently found in the coke in combination with carbonaceous material of is composition and as calcium and iron sulphides' In considering the general problem of sulphur elimination, the Republic Steel Corp. was interested in determining which, if either, of the two major forms of sulphur in coal contributes the greater portion of sulphur to the coke. Since the ratio of pyritic to organic sulphur varies widely in different coals, it was thought that if it could be shown definitely that the major part of the sulphur occurring in coke originates from one of the two ""jar forms of sulphur in the coal, it would then be possible to select with confidence coal which, although high .in total sulphur, would yield coke of fairly low sulphur content. Using the new

Jan 1, 1949

By R. W. Hyde, B. S. Old, S. E. Eaton

One of the most important problems facing the steel industry at the present time is that of maintaining at a minimum the sulphur content of many grades of steel where sulphur is known to have harmful effects On both quality and yield. The present outlook in this struggle to reduce the amount of sulphur in steel is rather gloomy since the sulphur content of the raw materials available in the United States is gradually rising, with little relief in sight. A flow sheet of sulphur in the steel process is shown in Fig I. The values used here were obtained by averaging coke oven and blast furnace data at No. 5 furnace in Cleveland and are considered typical for high top pressure practice. The sulphur evolved in the blast furnace top gas was obtained by difference and since the amount is relatively small, little significance should be attached to this particular value. From Fig I it is apparent, however, that coals used in the production of metallurgical coke represent by far the largest single source of sulphur in steel-making. As an indication of the decrease in quality of these coals as regards sulphur content the weighed average annual sulphur analysis of the coals supplied to two different steel plants, since 1925, is plotted in Fig 2} The sharp rise since 1940 is strikingly apparent. Another indication of this trend is found in estimates of coking coal reserves. Thus in the case of Pittsburgh seam coals available in Allegheny, Fayette, Greene, Washington, and Westmoreland Counties in Pa. as of Jan. 1937 only 25 pct of the coal reserves would contain less than 1.50 pct sulphur after washing.2.3 Many of these lower sulphur reserves have been seriously depleted in recent years because of accelerated war demands. still another demonstration of the increasing sulphur content of coals on a country-wide basis is found in a report by the Bureau of Mines4 which shows a steady increase in the sulphur content of coke made in the United States. It should be noted that this increase continues in spite of the wider use of coal washing in recent years. Sulphur occurs in coal in three forms, pyritic (FeS2), organic sulphur, and a small amount of sulphate sulphur (CaS04). The sulphur is subsequently found in the coke in combination with carbonaceous material of is composition and as calcium and iron sulphides' In considering the general problem of sulphur elimination, the Republic Steel Corp. was interested in determining which, if either, of the two major forms of sulphur in coal contributes the greater portion of sulphur to the coke. Since the ratio of pyritic to organic sulphur varies widely in different coals, it was thought that if it could be shown definitely that the major part of the sulphur occurring in coke originates from one of the two ""jar forms of sulphur in the coal, it would then be possible to select with confidence coal which, although high .in total sulphur, would yield coke of fairly low sulphur content. Using the new

Jan 1, 1949

By L. M. Lowe, D. B. Chambers, D. G. Feasby

"The presence of the naturally occurring radioactive elements uranium and thorium in rare earth (RE) resources can present challenges in achieving regulatory and social acceptance. The discovery and awareness of radioactivity in mineral resources radioactivity typically generates strong public intuitive responses that may be project prohibitive; a significant proportion of such resources contain radioactivity.The objectives of this paper are to demystify the presence of uranium and thorium in RE resources and to demonstrate how a RE project can be safely developed, operated and closed from a radiological perspective. Radioactivity in RE resources is principally thorium-based. Thorium is interesting and challenging from a metallurgical perspective – one of those stubborn metals commonly assessed as refractory. Thorium is difficult to mobilise into solution and easily precipitates out. Thorium is a common element in the earth’s crust – about 10 ppm on average, and natural geophysical systems conclusively demonstrate its immobility. Specific mine tailings contain elevated levels of thorium, but the contained thorium is neither a significant ecological nor a personal hazard.Waste management for a hard rock rare earth project includes the management of mineral processtailings, waste rock, and metallurgical residue. Proven strategies are available for tailings and waste rockfor all climate conditions. The management of the metallurgical residues is potentially more challenging.Example robust strategies for addressing these challenges are presented.A potential way to reduce the radioactivity of rare earth metallurgical wastes is to selectively remove uranium and thorium. Uranium oxide is readily marketable, but its concentration as a byproduct typically triggers extensive regulatory processes. Thorium is presently not marketable, but may be so in the not-too-distant future with the development of thorium-based nuclear energy. The pro’s and con’s of uranium and thorium byproduct recovery are summarized."

Jan 1, 2016