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By Walter R. Storms

"The New Mexico potash exploration described herein was begun in February- 1944 by the Federal Bureau of Mines with the object of determining the amount of potash ore in the United States Potash Reserve in Eddy County, N. Mex., by exploring the deposit from the surface with vertical drill holes. The work was completed in October of the same year after 16 holes had been drilled on the reserve and in the immediate vicinity.The Potash Reserve is located in secs. 26, 27, 34, and 35, T. 20 S., R. 29 E., Eddy County, N. Mex., about 14 miles northeast of the city of Carlsbad. Drilling was done in secs. 26 and 35 of the reserve, in sec. 14 to the north, and secs. 25 and 36 to the east. All work was done on Government-owned, unleased land.The reserve may be reached from Carlsbad by traveling northeast by automobile for about 14 miles on paved U. S. Highway 62. This highway passes through the southern part of the reserve. Other parts may be reached by a State highway which passes along the eastern side of the area, then by poor dirt roads to various drilling sites. A branch of the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railroad also passes across the southern part of the reserve en route from Carlsbad to the plant and mine of the Potash Co. of America, a few miles northeast of the Project and 22 miles from Carlsbad.Work on the project was greatly facilitated by the help of Ralph H. King, associate geologist, R. K. Bailey, geochemist, H. C. Spicer, geophysicist, Hope Bunker, junior geologist, and R. H Allport, district mining supervisor, all of the Federal Geological Survey; and Charles H. Johnson, who at that time was district engineer for New Mexico for the Mining Branch of the Bureau of Mines."

Apr 1, 1946

By Russell J. Foster

Public awareness of, and involvement in, recycling has increased significantly in recent years. Nevertheless, recycling is generally perceived as a new development, and is familiar only in the context of municipal solid waste management. The actual magnitude and scope of metals recycling in the United States have gone virtually unnoticed. Over time, both the quantitative and qualitative aspects of secondary metals recovery and reuse have changed substantially, while the attendant regulations have become increasingly stringent. This U.S. Bureau of Mines report examines trends and developments in major metal demand and recycling, and analyzes the possible impacts of regulations with regard to recycling activities.

Jan 1, 1994

By Charles H. Rich

This Bureau of Mines report is an expansion and update of Information Circular 8719 and comprises maps and tables listing the name, location, and other pertinent data concerning certain fuel-related projects. The maps show the locations of the planned or proposed facilities. The tables include information on projects involving the proposed or planned development of fuel resources, as well as the development of storage, transportation, and conversion facilities. The report covers the 24 States west of the Mississippi River including Alaska and Hawaii. Of the 808 projects for which information is provided, 219 concern coal mines, 246 concern electric generating plants, and 115 concern uranium mines; Energy Supply and Environmental Coordination Act coal conversion notices are also included. Because of the dynamic nature of the energy industry, many uncertainties exist and some of the listed projects may never become realities. Also, no attempt has been made to determine the degree of certainty or viability of each project.

Jan 1, 1978

By R. Hogg, S. Chander

"INTRODUCTION The behavior of particulate systems in general is determined by the properties of the solid and fluid phases and of the interfaces between them. As particle size is reduced, the inter facial effects become increasingly important until, in colloidal systems, they become completely dominant. Interfacial phenomena are especially important in coal processing for a variety of reasons. Because coal is naturally hydrophobic and its density is low, surface forces begin to dominate over gravity at relatively coarse sizes. Coal is thermodynamically unstable in the presence of air, so that surface oxidation occurs readily leading to important variations in surface properties with time and environment. These effects are further compounded by the inherent heterogeneity of the material.Surface characteristics and properties play a significant role in most aspects of coal processing. Comminution, for example, is a process of creating new surface, while agglomeration involves the reduction of surface area and is usually controlled by surface forces. Both solid-solid and solid-liquid separations are influenced by interracial phenomena, Gravity separations are usually performed in a liquid phase and are affected by the wetting characteristics of the various solids present and by the need to ensure proper dispersion of the individual particles. Froth notation, of course, separates particles on the basis of differences in surface characteristics. Chemical processes such as leaching generally involve interfacial reactions whose rates depend on surface area and may be influenced by electrochemical effects in the electrical double layer at the solid-liquid interface, or by adsorption of reactant and/or product species from solution. Solid-liquid separations and associated processes such as flocculation are strongly dependent on the nature and properties of the solid-liquid interface.In characterizing solid surfaces, it is important to consider first the surface area, since this determines the relative importance of the interfacial effects. The structure and chemical composition of the surface may depend on the distribution of different petrographic constituents and impurities such as finely disseminated mineral matter, on the extent of surface oxidation, and on adsorption from the environment. These, in turn, will generally determine the surface properties which define particle behavior. Since the relationships between structure etc. , and properties are not generally known, it is usually necessary to measure properties such as wettability and electrical charge directly."

Jan 1, 1989

By L. J. E. Hofer

"INTRODUCTION This paper is riot to be considered a complete survey of data on carbides; it is only an attempt to correlate the more reliable of the existing data of interest in connection with the Fischer-Tropsch synthesis, and its purpose is to guide future experiment and thought.A general review of the literature on the Fischer-Tropsch synthesis will be published in the near future as a chapter by H. H. Storch for a book entitled, ""The Chemical Utilization of Coal,"" edited by H. H. Lowry. This chapter covers the literature up to l9). It is planned to bring the review up to date in a comprehensive bulletin on Synthetic Liquid Fuel Processes to be completed during the next year. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSThe author discussed the significance of the data with several members of the Physical Chemistry and Hydrogenation Section.THE PREPARATION OF CARBIDES OF IRON, COBALT, AND NICKELThe reaction of carbon monoxide with Fischer-Tropsch metals was first studied in a quanitaive way by Bahr and his coworkers. The contents of their first papers, 3/ 4/ 5/ which deal with the action of carbon monoxide on nickel, cobalt, and iron, will be described in the following paragraphs, together with the pertinent results of other investigators."

Jul 1, 1944

By Kenneth L. Rubow, Virgil A. Marple, Zhigun Zhang

"A theoretical technique has been developed and verified experimentally for determining the aerodynamic diameter of irregular shaped particles. The aerodynamic diameter of a particle is a very important parameter for determining where that particle deposits in the respiratory tract. Many instruments, such as impactors and cyclones, will determine the aerodynamic size distributions of aerosol particles but few analyze the particles individually. The theoretical approach of our technique is to solve, by use of high speed computers, the three-dimensional Navier-Stokes equations to obtain the flow field around an irregular shaped particle of any contour. The computer program will then determine the drag on the particle, and thus the aerodynamic diameter of the particle can be calculated. The experimental approach has been to pass the particles through a centrifuge and collect the particles upon a collection foil. The position of a particle on the foil is an indication of its aerodynamic diameter. These particles were then shadowed in two orthogonal directions and inspected under an scanning electron microscope (SEM). The top view of the particle in the SEM plus the views of the two orthogonal shadows allows one to determine the three-dimensional shape of the particle. Studies have been performed on silica, coal and talc particles with aerodynamic diameters in the 1 to 4 µm size range. The three-dimensional shape, as is determined from SEM analysis, was used in the theoretical computer program and the results compared. It was found that in most cases the agreement between the experimentally and theoretically determined aerodynamic diameters was within 5%. INTRODCJCTIONThe equivalent aerodynamic diameter (EAD) of a particle, defined as the diameter of a unit density sphere with the same falling speed as the particle in question, is an important size measurement of the particle. This is especially true when attempting to predict where particles may deposit in the respirator tract. Therefore, EAD is an important parameter when considering respiratory diseases caused by particles, such as coal workers pneumoconiosis (CWP).Many instruments will measure the EAD size distribution of the aerosol particles, but few analyze the particles individually. Impactors, cyclones and virtual impactors normally collect particles upon substrates or filters which are · then analyzed gravimetrically to determine the mass concentration of the particles in that size classification. The EAD of particles can be measured on an individual basis with centrifuges, inertial spectrometers and the TSI Aerodynamic Particle Sizer (APS). Centrifuges are most ideally applicable for studying individual particles as the particles are deposited, on long removable foils, at locations dependent upon their EAD."

Jan 1, 1990

By David R. Wilburn

The U.S. Bureau of Mines investigated the resources, costs, capacities, market relationships, and short-and long-term supply of bauxite, alumina, and aluminum. The 45 evaluated mines and deposits in 14 market economy countries (MEC's) have a demonstrated resource of 8.4 billion mt of bauxite and an aluminum content of approximately 2.1 billion mt. Developed world bauxite resources and existing primary aluminum smelting and refining capacity are sufficient to satisfy demand through at least 1995, when additional properties (with higher cost levels) would need to be developed to satisfy future demand levels. It is anticipated that new alumina or aluminum production most likely would occur in developing regions with large bauxite potential, low-cost energy sources, and a close proximity to refining and/or smelting capacity. An increase in aluminum recycling capacity would help meet future demand increases. A series of network model supply analyses was performed for the period 1988 through 2000. Based on announced future production levels and assuming demand grows at the level outlined in the analyses, model results indicate there is sufficient material available to meet demand until 1998, where-upon an aluminum shortfall is projected. Additional analyses investigated the effect of a reduced growth rate of demand and regional production variations in Venezuela on the international aluminum industry.

Jan 1, 1993

By J. W. Paul, J. N. Geyer

"GENERAL STATEMENTThe purpose of this report, which is the first of a series of three covering mines in the Fairmont district of West Virginia, is to give the result of a' study conducted in seal mines to ascertain the nature of the safeguards employed to prevent injury to the workmen from falls of roof and coal. In presenting the subject matter, consideration must necessarily be given to factors, features, and conditions such as method of mining, timber regulations and practices, supervision and natural conditions; and, for comparative purposes, a certain amount of statistical matter bearing upon the relation of fatalities and injuries to their causes, tonnage produced, men employed, days worked, and time lost.Those features and practices found to promote safe protection are summarized and suggestions made for such additional safeguards and practices as appear to give greater protection against injury from falls of roof or coal.ACKNOWLEDGMENTSThis study of falls of roof and coal in mines in Harrison County has been conducted by the U. S. Bureau of Mines in cooperation with R. M. Lambie, chief of the Mining Department of the State of West Virginia who assigned L. W. Brown, a district mine inspector, to assist in the field work and in the preparation of individual reports on each mine visited in this study. The writers acknowledge the helpful suggestions and cooperation given by these officials, the latter of whom assisted in the field work and prop red most of these sketches for the individual reports which wore submitted to the operator by the chief of the department. Thin report is a summary of the contents of the individual reports heretofore furnished the individual operator."

Aug 1, 1931

By Kenneth E. Hay

The Bureau of Mines collected coal and coal waste aggregate material from two different mine sites to determine their strength characteristics for use in concrete. The concrete would be placed underground as support walls for ground control in adverse conditions or unique mining applications. A standard mix design was established for a "wet" mix using a water-to-cement (w/c) ratio of 1.0 to facilitate pumping into place. Later, material was collected from four more mine sites and used to make 2-by 2-by 2-ft test blocks with the same w/c ratio. A pull-out cone device and borehole shear tester were used to determine the in situ material strength of the test blocks. These techniques will provide a simple and quick way of determining support wall strength in an underground environment. Test results from the pullout cone de-vice showed a good correlation of 0.98 to test cylinder compressive strengths of the same mix. Results of the borehole shear tester were inconclusive.

Jan 1, 1986

During fiscal year 1966 the Bureau of Mines published 99 scientific and technical papers and engaged in 67 research projects on petroleum, natural gas, and oil shale. A basic appropriation of $3.4 million was supplemented by $1 million in cooperative funds from other Governmental agencies and industry groups. Petroleum conservation was advanced by development of scientific knowledge and improvement of technologic methods in both the extraction and utilization of petroleum, natural gas, and oil shale. Experimental work was carried out at research centers in Bartlesville, Okla., and Laramie, Wo., and in laboratories in Morgantown, W. Va., and San Francisco, Calif. ACHIEVEMENTS IN FISCAL YEAR 1966 Bureau of Mines--Petroleum Research in fiscal year 1966 (July 1, 1965- June 30, 1966) was involved in many public issues--air pollution, peaceful uses of nuclear explosives, utilization of oil-shale resources, computerization of recovery-stimulation techniques, and fuels for supersonic airplanes. Scientific contributions included compositional studies of petroleum and oil shale, determination of thermodynamic properties of petroleum compounds, development of analytical techniques, and correlations of petroleum properties with geologic occurrence. Technologic advances included rock-fracturing research, in situ combustion studies, waterflood techniques, use of radio-tracers to study stability of petroleum fuels, and hydrogenation as a tool to prepare shale-oil products.

Jan 1, 1968

By W. H. Schiffbauer

NIOSH has developed an active proximity warning system called HASARD (Hazardous Area Signaling and Ranging Device) for warning workers as they approach known dangerous areas around heavy mining equipment and other dangerous work zones. HASARD is composed of a transmitter and a receiver. The transmitter generates a 60-kHz magnetic field using one or more wire loop antennas. Each antenna is adjusted to establish a magnetic field pattern for each hazardous area. The receiver, worn by the worker, is a magnetic field strength meter. The received signal is compared against preset levels which are calibrated to identify levels of danger. The receiver outputs can include visual, audible, and vibratory indicators and it can also be made to disable machine functions. HASARD was field tested on a Joy 12 continuous miner, a Komatsu 210 M Haulpak, and on a highwall launch vehicle. Slight modifications were made for each application. HASARD provided warnings as designed and proved to be rugged enough to withstand the harshest of production environments.

The design, specification, and performance evaluation of the Communications and Location portions of a Coal Mine Rescue and Survival System are described. The work was performed as part of a nine month effort to develop a mine rescue and survival system using existing technology and state -of-the -art hardware as recommended by the National Academy of Engineering. Three basic subsystems were developed, one for survival, one for communications/location and one for rescue. This report and related equipment manuals describe only the Communications/ Location Subsystem which was designed, fabricated, and tested by the Westinghouse Georesearch Laboratory in Boulder, Colorado. Two basic technologies were used. Electromagnetic signals propagating through-the-earth provide voice downlink and coded beacon up-link communications. Seismic methods were developed to provide means for locating trapped miners. Seismic signalling also provides a backup means for communications. Parallel development programs for the electromagnetic and seismic portions of the system were conducted. The resulting hardware and software have been partially tested in coal mines and under simulated emergency conditions in order to evaluate system performance. The results of these tests are discussed. Further testing is recommended in order to establish quantitative performance limitations tinder a variety of environmental conditions and to develop methods for improving system performance.

Jan 1, 1971

By E. R. Cole

One objective of Bureau of Mines recycling research is to devise technology that enables recovery of metals and minerals from wastes. From October 1982 through September 1985, researchers at the Bureau and at the University of Missouri Rolla (contract H0222002) investigated the use of nonferrous flue dust with varying Zn contents (11 to 66 pct) as a source of Zn for electrogalvanizing steel wire. The waste dusts used were from a secondary Cu smelter, a brass smelter, a Pb smelter, and a water treatment plant. The dusts were leached in H2S04, and the leach solutions were treated to make electrolyte for electrogalvanizing steel wire using soluble Zn anodes. Cyclic voltammetry was used in an inno-vative method to evaluate the quality of the electrolytes used for elec-rogalvanizing. After electrogalvanizing, the wire was drawn on a labo-ratory draw bench to simulate industrial practice. Corrosion resistance was measured by a number of electrochemical techniques and by the stan-dard ASTM salt-spray tests. After successful bench-scale tests, the process was demonstrated in an industrial pilot plant. Results indicate that nonferrous flue dusts can be used as a source of Zn for electro-galvanizing if certain impurities are either partially or completely removed from the starting electrolyte.

Jan 1, 1987

By A. R. Taylor

In recent years, thermodynamic data have been used to a greater degree than ever by the chemical and metallurgical engineer as a means of predicting and controlling chemical reactions. To satisfy the spiraling demand for basic physical data needed for the calculations, the Bureau of Mines is studying the heat capacities of a variety of chemical compounds at high and low temperatures. This paper is one of a series presenting such data. The heat capacities of two alkaline earth compounds, strontium bromide and strontium nitrate, were measured in a temperature range of 60° to 300° K. in an adiabatic calorimeter and at temperatures of 300° to about 1,200° K. in a Bunsen ice calorimeter. The construction and operation of the calorimeters are discussed in other reports.3 4 The heat-capacity data presented in this report were extrapolated to 0° K., and smooth values of heat capacity, entropy, enthalpy function, and free-energy function were calculated and tabulated at even 10-degree intervals. The enthalpy data were fitted with algebraic equations by applying the method of least squares; calculations a£ heat-capacity values, entropy, enthalpy function, and free-energy function were made at even 50-degree intervals. The heat and entropy of fusion of strontium bromide were calculated from the enthalpy measurements.

Jan 1, 1962

By Larry A. Haas

The Bureau of Mines constructed a torsion effusion apparatus to measure the equilibrium vapor pressure of pure metals, alloys, and compounds at temperatures up to 1,500° K. The reliability of the apparatus was established by determining the vapor pressure of silver. The data obtained on solid and liquid silver in the temperature range 1,200° to 1,500° K can be expressed by the following equations:

Jan 1, 1965

By Charles G. Maier

"INTRODUCTION The use of thermodynamic calculations to answer practical problems in metallurgy, especially those that are relatively difficult to test experimentally, is rapidly becoming a conventional method of procedure. Nevertheless, these methods cannot he applied effectively until the fundamental thermodynamic constants used for them have become available either by direct experiment or by recalculation of data already existing in more or less undigested form.In an attempt to collect such data far the compounds of lead and the antimony group the incentive has been to make a preliminary survey that will disclose the gaps or questionable phases of available information and to collect data that may be used to answer certain rather practical problems presented by operating metallurgists.This report comprises three sections; the first gives the basis of selection of the constants which may now be given or estimated, and the later sections discuss the application of the figures obtained to two of the more interesting problems.The reader will discover that many of the quantities involve critical study of a number of more or less discordant observations. Although certain data could be rejected on the basis of thermodynamic comparisons, it must not be overlooked that many of the figures are the results of rational estimates rather than exact experiment. The use of thermodynamic methods to control and partly authenticate such estimates is one of its most valuable characteristics for the practising metallurgist or chemist, who cannot check by direct experiment each property of the materials which he converts to usable form.Nevertheless, while it is definitely possible in certain instances that the final figure selected for the heat or free energy of a process or substance may be in error by as much as a few hundred to a few thousand calories per formula weight, questionable figures are usually revealed by the thermodynamic calculations made. When quantities of such degree of accuracy are, and they often must be, used for estimating an unknown reaction, the result often gives no more than the order of magnitude of the desired quantities. Yet even in these extreme cases the answer is far more reliable and valuable than an unordered guess or a conclusion based on incorrect data."

Dec 1, 1934

By Michael L. Boucher

Copper and nickel sulfides occurring in the Duluth Complex of northern Minnesota were examined at the Bureau of Mines, A microscopic study was undertaken to determine the mineralogy and paragenesis of the ore minerals. Eighty-two samples were taken from one deep diamond drill core located near Babbitt, Minn. Modal analyses are presented for the Duluth Complex rocks and for the are minerals in the major mineralized zone. The major sulfide minerals are chalcopyrite, cubanite, pyrrhotite, troilite, and pentlandite. Results of this investigation suggest that the mineralization is related to the structural features of the enclosing rocks: pores, open fractures, and cavities. The pyrrhotite-troilite-pentlandite assemblage is believed to have formed from an immiscible sulfide melt, probably associated with the troctolitic rocks. Most of it settled to the very porous base of the Duluth Complex, and to the other porous zones near xenoliths; small portions were trapped higher in the section. A later introduction of a copper-rich sulfide melt replaced some of the pyrrhotite-troilite and oxides, and filled in the remaining open spaces and fractures in the Duluth Complex and those of the adjacent footwall rock.

Jan 1, 1975

By S. J. Aresco

The Bureau of Mines has been active in promoting the purchase of coal for Government use under specifications that define the requirements in terms of heating value of the coal, expressed in British thermal units, and the composition as shown by proximate analyses. To these, when required, are added the ash-softening temperature, the free-swelling index, and the Hardgrove grindability index. Under most of these specification contracts the bidders guarantee the quality of the coal, and that guaranteed by the successful bidder becomes the standard of his contract. The deliveries are sampled in accordance with instructions4/ issued by the Bureau of Mines; the samples are analyzed in the Bureau laboratory to determine whether the coal is of the quality guaranteed by the contractor and, if it is not, a price adjustment is made. Analyses of the delivered coal and tipple samples (samples collected at mine tipples as coal is being loaded into railroad cars or trucks) provide valuable data for use in evaluating future bids. In addition, the continuous .sampling of coal as delivered is a check on the practical results obtained in burning the coal.

Jan 1, 1958

By R. E. Kennedy

"INTRODUCTION In a previous publication4 results were given of numerous experiments made on the in-flammability of gas mixtures consisting of methane, hydro a. carbon monoxide, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide. Data were obtained and tables prepared giving the inflammable limits of each of these combustibles when mixed with various proportions of carbon dioxide and nitrogen. By the use of these data and the application of Le Chatelier's law, it was found possible to calculate the limits of inflammability of any gas mixture containing any or all of the above gases.Various mixtures of the five gases given above were prepared and their limits determined experimentally and then calculated. Good agreement was found between the determined and calculated results when complex gases encountered in mine safety work were tested. Of special significance was the accurate calculation of the limits of inflammability of gases from mine fires, gases from mine explosions, detonation products of explosives, blast—furnace gases, automobile exhaust gas, and other gases of a similar character.Using the method given in the above report, Yeaw5 investigated a number of industrial gases including oven, coal, producer, blue, carbureted blue, and dry quencher gases, and found the determined and calculated results to agree remarkably well, thus giving further proof of the value of such a means of determining dangerous conditions when combustible gases are encountered in practice.GASES FROM A POTASH MINEGases were recently encountered in a potash nine in New Mexico, containing the com-bustibles, methane, hydrogen, and ethane. In one special case a mild explosion occurred when these gases were mixed with the right proportions of air and ignited it therefore became necessary to know the inflammability of these mixtures in order that the proper precautions could be taken to prevent explosions."

May 1, 1932

By Dennis R. Dolinar, John L. Ellenberger, Gabriel S. Esterhuizen, Anthony T. Iannacchione

A survey of pillar conditions was carried out at 21 operating limestone mines that use the room-and-pillar method. The surveyed pillars were all located in rock that was classified as “Good” to “Very Good” using the RMR rock mass classification system. The average pillar width was 14.5m and the width to height ratio varied between 0.53 and 3.52. Pillar conditions were rated using a visual rating system that accounts for the effect of geological structures as well as stress related fracturing. Nine cases of pillar instability were recorded. Pillar instabilities were typically limited to individual pillars or small groups of pillars within an otherwise stable layout. Local geological structures such as inclined discontinuities or weak bedding planes contributed to instability in seven of nine cases that were observed. Elevated pillar stresses contributed to instability in the two remaining cases. All the unstable pillars observed had width-to-height ratios of less than 1.5. It is concluded that pillar instability is most likely to be caused by unfavorable geological structures in pillars with width to height ratios of less than 1.5. Stress related instability such as rib spalling becomes more prevalent when the average pillar stress approaches approximately 20 MPa.