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By C. H. Mathewson

(New York Meeting, February, 1916) DURING the past year considerable work dealing with the mechanical properties and microstructure following the anneal under uniform conditions of certain types of commercial rolled brass has been done in this laboratory. Since these experiments were conducted with the active cooperation of the Bridgeport Brass Co., involving free use of its product, and have thus furnished information which is characteristic of some of its special mixtures, full publication of the numerical relationships and comparative results encountered does not seem justifiable. Some of the more general features of this work are, however, available and it is our present purpose to use the material in question, along with some results of special tests, in discussing the characteristics of recrystallization as related to the degree of hardening by strain and the ordinary annealing variables. We desire to make acknowledgment of the many courtesies extended by Mr. Charles Ferry, Metallurgist of the Bridgeport Brass Co., and the value of his cooperation, which has greatly stimulated the study of brass in this laboratory. A clear and systematic presentation of the principal relations between temperature and time of anneal, the changing physical properties and microstructure and the degree of previous reduction by cold-rolling, was first made, in the case of rolled brass and copper, by the French engineer, C. Grard,1 in 1909, although much fragmentary information of this general character had appeared earlier and the main facts involved were undoubtedly known to many brass specialists through their own private research. From this work, it appears that in the cartridge mixture (67 per cent. copper, 33 per cent. zinc) the properties imparted by cold-working within the limits, 13 to 75 per cent. reduction of area by rolling

Jan 1, 1916

By R. H. Harrington

THE definition of precipitation-hardening is well understood and its principles have been subjected to study for some time. However, the variation of properties with double aging, combined with strain-hardening, gives promise of new and useful phenomena. Properly to understand these distinctions, definitions of these terms are necessary. Precipitation-hardening. This reaction usually depends upon an alloy having such a composition that it consists only, or in major part, of but one phase, a solid solution, at a high temperature, so that, upon slow cooling, this solution breaks down into two phases, the solid solution and a compound. By heating the alloy to the temperature for maximum solution of the compound, quenching, and reheating to a suitable lower temperature for critical dispersion precipitation of the compound, useful properties of the alloy may be developed to a maximum. Double Aging.-Dougle aging in part is similar to the process for precipitation-hardening, consisting of heating a precipitation-hardening alloy to the solution temperature, quenching, reheating to the suitable dispersion precipitation temperature, strain-hardening, and again reheat-ing to a suitable temperature to develop certain useful properties to a maximum. The strain-hardening may be induced by two methods: (1) a rate of cooling from the first reheat may suffice to strain the solid solution lattice of the alloy; or (2) the alloy may be cold-worked to a suitable degree between the two reheats.

Jan 1, 1936

By J. O. Nelson, C. J. Altstetter

Single crystals of hcp cobalt, 3 mm in diameter and up to 35 cm long, were grown using an electron-beam, zone-melting technique. The martensitic-phase transformation was studied in single-crystalline and polycrystalline specimens by making length-change measurements as a function of temperature under various elastic compressive stresses. Upon thermal cycling, single-crystalline or polycrystalline specimens repeatedly transformed almost entirely on the same variant of close-packed plane provided the maximum temperature did not exceed 600°C. Cycling to 1000°C resulted in transformation on more than one {111} variant. This behavior is termed multivariance. The multivariant transformation occurred very rapidly at an M, temperature 2° to 6°C lower than the M, of a transformation which would result in a single-crystal product. Elastic compressive stresses (up to 253 g per sq mm) tended to lower the A, and raise the M, temperatures, decreasing the width of the temperature vs dilatation hysteresis loop. The transformation habit plane and transformation shear direction of an as-grown single crystal were not grossly affected by elastic compressi?ie stress. This was evidenced by similar dilatations on the temperature us dilatation loops joy specimens with and without compressive stress. A dislocation mechanism is proposed to explain the observed results. IT has been shown that, on heating, cobalt transforms martensitically from the hcp to the fcc phase.' The transformation habit plane is (0001)hcp || (lll)fcc and the transformation shear direction is (1010)hcp || (112)fcc. The transformation involves a shear of 1g°28', which may be achieved by a shearing of a/6(112) of every two planes with respect to the plane beneath, thus changing the ABABAB stacking of hcp to the ABCABC stacking of fcc. Associated with the phase change is a 0.3 x 10"3 contraction in the habit plane and a 4.2 X 10"3 expansion perpendicular to the habit plane resulting in a 3.6 x X volume increase on heating.' On cooling, an identical volume decrease takes place. The temperature at which the fcc phase begins to form on heating (A,) is reported as 430°C, and the temperature at which the hcp phase begins to form on cooling from an elevated temperature (A&) is reported as 390oC1,3 Consequently, temperature vs dilatation plots have the form of a hysteresis loop. If heating or cooling is reversed during a transformation, a smaller hysteresis loop results. Upon heating, the transformation is always complete; whereas, fcc is often retained at room temperature as a metastable phase entrapped in the polycrystal-line hexagonal matrix.1,4,5 Two obstacles in the theory of the allotropic-phase transformation of cobalt have been: 1) a detailed knowledge of the product nucleus, and 2) a plausible method of propagation of the transformation. Bilby,8 christian, 7 and seeger 8,9 have suggested a "pole mechanism" as a means of propagation of partiai dislocations from plane to plane. A pole dislocation and a Shockley partial come together at a node. The a/6(112) Shockley partial rotates about the pole dislocation effecting the transformation shear. The pole dislocation must have a 2a/3(111) screw component which causes extension of the transformed region by two atomic planes with each full rotation of the Shockley partial. Bollmannl0 suggested, on the other hand, that transformation propagation occurs due to the stress fields of intersecting (111)-type stacking faults. As faults intersect, a stress distribution is set up about their intersection which is in turn reduced by the emergence of another fault on the second nearest plane. This process continues with the final result of a complete phase transformation. In view of the similarities between deformation and transformation in cobalt, the effect of stress on the transformation would, hopefully, yield valuable information concerning nucleation and propagation. In the present work single-crystalline and polycrystalline specimen length changes were measured as a function of temperature at various compressive loads. PROCEDURE Several orientations of single crystals of hcp cobalt in lengths up to 25 cm were grown by electron-beam floating zone melting from 99.95 and 99.999 pct, 3-mm-diam cobalt rod as supplied by Johnson

Jan 1, 1964

By Jose Luis de Valle Alonso

Although present electrolytic zinc manufacturing processes are aimed at the direct wet process recovery of the metal, and, with this end in view, several industrial scale patents have been applied for during the last few years, the object of this paper is to enhance the possible metallurgical interest in the conventional recovery of zinc and other metals from leaching residues. Therefore, its main end is the description and discussion of the recovery process of zinc, lead and cadmium from leaching residues. Fundamentally, the process consists of the following: Flotation processing to recover the non-roasted blende still contained in the residues. Pyrometallurgical processing of flotation tails in low-shaft furnaces (kilns) and open-flame rotating furnaces and the ensuing recovery of zinc, lead and cadmium as a mixture of their oxides through volatilization.

Jan 1, 1970

Jan 1, 1914

By Jack A. Simon, M. E. Hopkins

GENERAL GEOLOGY Coal is defined as a combustible rock that had its origin in the accumulation and physical and chemical alteration of vegetation. Coal can be ignited and burned like the wood that was man's earliest fuel, but coal gives more heat than the same amount of wood and has many industrial uses. Unlike wood, coal is not generally found on the surface of the ground but is mined from the solid rock of the earth. Before taking up the occurrence, formation, and the somewhat unique character of coal in the rock sequence, let us briefly consider the general character of all rocks in the crust of the earth. Relatively little is known about the very earliest history of the earth, although a number of logical theories have been developed. Manned exploration of the moon and the rocks being returned to earth will, we hope, provide some answers to questions concerning the earth's origin and history. The period of earth history with which we concern ourselves here begins after great areas of water had evolved on earth and substantial land areas of once molten (igneous) rock existed. Weathering and other processes that attacked the surface of the rocks reduced them to small particles. Water provided by rainfall transported this material, ultimately, to large bodies of water where it was deposited. Thus was initiated the geologic sequence of sedimentary rocks that lie above the once molten igneous rocks. The crust of the earth is not completely stable, and throughout the geologic past portions of the crust have moved laterally and vertically. Even today, many coastal areas are slowly rising or sinking. More sudden earth movements are recognized by the earthquakes they cause. Throughout geologic history, rises in sea level or the sinking of the land areas have many times permitted the oceans to cover much of what are now the areas of the continents. Only relatively small parts of the present continents appear to have been above sea level throughout geologic time. Great

Jan 1, 1973

By Zay Jeffries

Each generation accepts the developments of the preceding generations without full appreciation of the difficulties that had to be overcome or of the effect of any given development on society. Today, the production of pig iron is the yardstick with which general industrial health and progress are measured. So natural and logical does this seem to us, that it is difficult to picture conditions prior to the fourteenth century when pig iron was unknown. Not only was pig iron unknown but iron or steel could not be melted and poured into castings; all iron and steel articles were forged from sponge iron. All castings, as well as many worked articles, were made of non-ferrous metals or alloys. In many parts of the world, over long periods of time, not only was the annual exchange value of non-ferrous metals greater than that of iron and steel, but their combined tonnage was greater. At present, the value of the pig iron produced in a year is of the same order of magnitude as that of all non-ferrous metals combined; the tonnage of pig iron is, however, about twenty times that of all non-ferrous metals combined. Owing to lack of records, we will probably never know the relative importance of the various metals at all periods in historic times. A certain conclusion is that the iron and steel industry, since the discovery of pig iron and the cheap methods of converting it into steel, has grown at a much more rapid rate than the non-ferrous metal industries. Notwithstanding their fundamental fitness for man's needs, iron and steel owe their importance in no small degree to the low cost of production. The low cost was a result of increased knowledge of the production appliances and of the metallurgical processes. This increased knowledge is the key to our modern industrial civilization. It will remain for future generations to determine whether there is now going on a gradual change toward greater importance of the non-ferrous metals, as compared to iron and steel. The world's pig iron production in 1920 was slightly more than twice what it was in 1890, whereas the non-ferrous metals production in 1920 was about two and one-half times that in 1890. Every non-ferrous metal industry has shown marked growth during the last thirty years. During this period, the production of cop-

Jan 1, 1924

By W. D. Robertson, H. Conrad

Incremental loading creep tests were conducted on magnesium single crystals in tension and direct shear at 78" to 364°K. The creep curves were transient in character and exhibited waves or periodic behavior, especially at small strain rates. A sigmoidal curve was frequently observed following the first occurrence of creep. Repeating of segments of a master curve was observed at all temperatures indicating that identical conditions for flow existed after various stress and strain histories. A logarithmic time law with a independent of temperature whs observed at 78°and 203°K, while a parabolic (power) time law was approximated at 298" and 364°K. The departure from logarithmic creep was attributed. to recovery, which was observed at 298" and 364°K. The temperature independence of a represents a serious objection to the theory of low-temperature creep based on the intersection of dislocations. IN a previous paper1 it was found that the initial creep rate of magnesium single crystals, y, following the addition of a stress increment in the range of 78° to 364°K, was given by the expression ? = C exp - {?H/kT} exp {B(T- h ?)} [1] where B and C are constants, AH is an activation energy of 10,300 cal per mole, T is the applied stress, ? is the total strain at the time of the stress increment, and h is the strain-hardening coefficient. The present paper is concerned with certain other features of creep behavior observed during this investigation; namely, the form of the creep curves, time laws for creep, recovery, and microscopic and X-ray observations of the structural manifestations of the creep flow. To the authors' knowledge the temperature range of the present investigation (0.08 Tm to 0.40 Tm) has not been covered previ-

Jan 1, 1959

McCulloch, Leon.-Experiments with Sherardizing. Discussed by Fred. L. Wolf, Willis M. Peirce, Jesse L. Jones, O. W. Storey, David R. Kellogg, William H. Finkeldey, L. H. Marshall 2 Bassett, W. H. and Davis, C. H.-Spectrum Analysis in an Industrial Laboratory. Discussed by C. S. Brainin, C. H. Davis, W. H. Bassett, George K. Burgess, George K. Elliott, Leonard Waldo, Keivin Burns 8 Roast, Harold J. and Pascoe, Charles F.-Arsenical Bearing Metals. Discussed by Jesse L. Jones, William A. Cowan,. William K. Frank, William M. Corse, Harold J. Roast 10 Bain, Edgar C.-Crystal Structure of Solid Solutions. Discussed by Ancel St. John, Edgar C. Bain, Paul D. Merica 14 Peirce, Willis M.-Studies on the Constitution of Binary Zinc-base Alloys. Discussed by George K. Burgess, Willis M. Peirce, D. H. Ingall, J. L. Haughton, K. E. Bingham 16 Webster, William R.-Application in Rolling of Effects of Carbon, Phosphorus and Manganese on Mechanical Properties of Steel. Discussed by George B. Waterhouse, J. O. Liebig, Ralph H. Sweetser, H. T. Morris, F. D. Carney, W. P. Barba, John H. Nelson, George K. Burgess 19 Barba, W. P. and Howe, Henry M.-Acid Open-hearth Process for Manufacture of Gun Steels and Fine Steels. Discussed by W. J. Priestley, Haakon Styri, C. T. Patterson, Harry Brearley, W. P. Barba, George F. Comstock, Alexander L. Feild 24 Kellogg, David R.-Electrolytic Deposition of Iron for Building up Worn or Undersized Parts. Discussed by Jesse L. Jones, William Blum, C. R. Hayward, George K. Burgess, C. P. Perin, David R. Kellogg 33 McQuaid, H. W. and Elm, E. W.-Effect of Quality of Steel on Case-carburizing Results. Discussed by H. J. French and L. Jordan, W. J. Priestley, M. H. Schmid, A. E. White, H. J. Stagg and S. C. Spalding, Henry S. Rawdon, J. S. Vanick 35 Phillips, Arthur and Davenport, E. S.-Malleableizing of White Cast Iron. Discussed by Samuel Epstein, H. A. Schwartz, A. E. White, R. S. Archer.... 58 Priestley, William J.-Effect of Sulfur and Oxides in Ordnance Steel. Discussed by Harry T. Morris, William J. Priestley, C. P. Perin, James H. Gray, W. P. Barba, Haakon Styri, Frank D. Carney, W. L. Harbrecht, George F. Comstock, E. J. Janitzky 67

Jan 5, 1922

By Arne F. Westgren

X-ray analysis and single-crystal study have been utilized in recent years as a new means of following constitutional changes in alloys. If such transformations can be suppressed by rapid cooling, they can be followed at room temperature in a particularly convenient manner. In the following we shall consider changes in solubility and polymorphic transformations with particular reference to phenomena of the age-hardening type. Finally a thermodynamic viewpoint is developed for examining such transformations. Changes in Solubility 1. Determinations of solubility limits in the solid state which show decreasing solubility with falling temperature are made as follows: A series of alloys extending into the heterogeneous region is prepared and quenched fromas high a temperature as possible, whereupon their lattice parameters are determined. Then one or more alloys are quenched from temperatures at which they are heterogeneous and their lattice parameters likwwise determined. For the purpose of determining the parameter the apparatus shown in Fig. 1 has been very useful for it produces sharp films in a short time which can be accurately read. High-order reflections (interferences) from the object are recorded on a film which is placed exactly perpendicular to the X-ray beam. The specimen usually has the shape of a small round bar.l Fig. 2 shows a selection of such exposures of silver-rich Cu-Ag alloys, and Fig. 3 gives the measurements made from these films. Fig. 4 gives the solubility curve which results.2 This curve is shifted to lower concentrations than the curve that is obtained from metallographic or physical methods. The X-ray method unquestionably gives more reliable data

Jan 1, 1931

By Robert Mehl

IN examining the progress of metallurgical science, the critic must remember that most of our present knowledge of metals and alloys has been accumulated through the needs of industry and commerce rather than through the desire and efforts of a large body of scientists interested primarily in developing a science of metals. The progress of metallurgy, scientifically speaking, has been irregular, and little given to the exhaus-tive exploitation of important scientific fields. The experienced engineer now recognizes the need for the development of the basic science upon which his engineering rests. In addition to the increase in knowledge which results from the normal requirements of industry, a development of the basic science of the behavior of metals and alloys is as desirable in metallurgy as in any other branch of science and engineering. The continued growth of the science of metals-as of every other science-requires studious attention to the principles that underlie the behavior of matter, with the result that knowledge in the several fields of interest should continue to increase. Among the various subjects recognized as important in physical metallurgy few have a wider significance than that of diffusion in solid metals. The phenomena of diffusion are intimately related to many basic problems of the metallic state, but in addition to this, the process of diffu-sion is of first importance practically. The formation of alloys by the annealing of mixed powders, first practiced by Faraday and Stodart81 in 1820 and in more recent years investigated by Masing187,189 and others, has led to the development of special alloys like Carboloy, Vascoloy-Ramet, Genelite, Elcon68, and has recently been applied to the production of noble-metal alloys for electrical contacts"'.

Jan 1, 1936

By Robert T. MacMillan

Of all the mineral substances utilized by man, salt or sodium chloride has one of the longest and most varied histories. Because all animal life is descended from marine organisms, sodium and chlorine became necessary to life, and as sodium chloride meets requirements most readily, common salt has been essential to human and animal diets from earliest times. As civilization progressed, man learned to evaporate sea water and brines of saline lakes and springs to obtain salt, and gradually ceased to depend on the flesh of animals and the occasional salt outcrops or "salt licks" they frequented. He also learned that salt had a multitude of uses, particularly as a preservative of meat and other foods. The importance of salt in the minds of early men may be readily seen from many allusions in the Bible and other ancient writings. Expressions such as "not worth his salt," and "the salt of the earth" are deeply embedded in the English language. Salt has symbolized friendship, fidelity, purity, and hospitality. It has been used as currency; had religious significance; caused wars; and has been a favorite commodity for taxation. The English word "salary" stems from the Latin word for salt, in which Roman soldiers received part of their pay. Although salt today retains its dietary importance, it has thousands of other uses. Of each 100 pounds produced in the United States less than three pounds is for table use. The other 97 pounds goes for agricultural, industrial, and chemical uses. Fortunately, reserves of salt are enormous and reasonably well distributed on the face of the earth. The sea is an inexhaustible source of salt which may be had at prices which vary with climate and other factors. In addition, large underground salt deposits and many salt lakes, springs and playas are scattered throughout the world. Most countries have access to a salt supply, although some are more favored than others. Properties Crystallized sodium chloride or common salt is known as halite. Its molecular weight is 58.454 and it contains, by weight, 39.34 pct sodium and 60.66 pct chlorine. Alternate positions in the cubic lattice are occupied, respectively, by negative chloride and positive sodium ions; the crystal form is isometric. Crystallization from water produces concentric shells, and when broken, a crystal shows conchoidal fracture. Salt has a hardness of 2.5; its specific gravity ranges from 2.1 to 2.6 for rock salt and is 2.165 for the pure crystal. The refractive index is 1.554; it melts at 800.8 ± 0.5°C and boils at 1413°C. Its heat of fusion is 123.59 cal/ gram. Salt is transparent or translucent and highly diathermous. It is colorless when pure and has a vitreous luster. Salt containing traces of iron oxides has varying shades of yellow, orange, brown, pink, or red. The peculiar shade of red sometimes found in that produced by solar evaporation of sea water has been attributed to tiny organisms. Blue mottlings sometimes seen in halite crystals have been attributed to colloidal sodium. Salt is soluble in water to the extent of 35.7 parts per 100 parts of water at 0°C and 39.8 parts per 100 of water at 100°C. The small difference in solubility with increasing temperature is important in the economics of producing salt by evaporating brine. Salt has a negative heat of solution which is 1.281 kg-cal/ mole at 18°C in 200 moles of water.

Jan 1, 1960

By Thomas T., Read

IN this survey of the progressive development (of education for the mineral industries throughout the United States, the review of .the history of each school has usually been completed wherever it is first mentioned, but the history of the schools in the cities of the eastern seaboard was not carried beyond 1870. It is necessary now to cover what happened during the period of approximately the last quarter of the nineteenth century in several of the schools in the east. Philadelphia Of Philadelphia, it has been related in chapter 4 that the Polytechnic College of Pennsylvania began offering a curriculum leading to the B.S. in mining in 1853; that the school did not prosper, and finally closed about 1890. The establishment of a Department of Mining, Arts, and Manufactures at the University of Pennsylvania in 1855-56 was also mentioned, but its history was not carried beyond 1860. In 1859 J. Peter Lesley was appointed professor of mining in the University of Pennsylvania. The son of a cabinetmaker, born in Philadelphia Sept. 17, 1819, he had taken his A.B. degree at the University of Pennsylvania in 1838 and then secured a position on the Geological Survey of Pennsylvania under H. D. Rogers. When the Survey was discontinued, in 1841, he went to Princeton to study theology, was ordained a Presbyterian minister and followed that career until 1852, when the Pennsylvania, Geological Survey was again started and he rejoined its staff. He published "A Manual of Coal and its Topography" in 1856, and studied at the École des Mines, Paris, in 1856-57. He published an 800-page "Iron Manufactures Guide" the year that he was appointed to the staff at the University of Pennsylvania. In 1863-64 a College of Agriculture, Mines, Arts and the Mechanic Arts was established, but it was not a separate school

Jan 1, 1941

By M. Muskat

A theory has been developed describing the behavior of wells and reservoirs producing by the action of bottom water drives. It is assumed that the pressures are maintained above the bubble point, and that the permeability to viscosity ratio of the water in the flooded zone is the same as for the oil in the oil-saturated pay. Accordingly, the treatment is based on the homogeneous fluid potential theory. The effect of the difference in density between the oil and water is neglected. .4fter deriving the proper potential distrihutions, the nature of the rise of the water-oil interface below the producing wells is calculated. The primary clean-oil-production phase is expressed in terms of the displacement efficiency, defined as the fraction of the pay flooded out by the rising water table at tlle time of first water entry. The variation of this displacement efficiency is calculated as a function of the well spacing, pay thickness, the ratio of the horizontal to vertical permeability, and the well penetration. The important parameter, other than the well penetration, is found to be the ratio of the well separation to the thickness of the oil pay multiplied by the square root of the ratio of vertical to horizontal permeability. It was found that the displacement efficiency continually decreases as this parameter increases, and for values of the latter >3.5, the efficiency varies inversely as the square of the parameter. It also increases with decreasing well penetration. Perhaps the most striking result of this phase of the analysis is the conclusion that in order to explain the delay in entry of water in wells producing by bottom water drives for periods longer than a few days normal production, with drawdowns large compared with the differential density head between the oil and water, it is necessary to assume that the vertical permeability is a very low fraction of the horizontal permeability. An analysis is also given of the production history after the water has broken through, on the assumption that the production mechanism and details of the flow distribution continue to be the same as during the phase of clean-oil production. As is to be expected, it is found that the water cut will increase at an accelerated rate as production proceeds. However, the initial differences between systems of different well penetrations or well spacings with respect to the total clean-oil production gradually decrease in terms of the variation of the water-oil ratio with cumulative production. In particular, by the time the water-oil ratio has reached values of the order of 5 or greater the cumulative recoveries will generally differ much less among various producing systems than their corresponding clean-oil recoveries. Introduction On the basis of elementary geological principles, one may classify effective water-drive fields in two groups. In the first, the entry of water into the oil-producing formation may be characterized as an edge-water encroachment. This term is used to suggest that the motion of the water proceeds largely in a direction parallel to the planes of stratification. This type of water intrusion occurs usually in thin producing zones and in strata lying along structural flanks of appreciable dip. In the second group—"bottom water-drive" fields—the water-oil interface lies in a plane of zero or slight inclination to the

Jan 1, 1947

By M. Muskat

A theory has been developed describing the behavior of wells and reservoirs producing by the action of bottom water drives. It is assumed that the pressures are maintained above the bubble point, and that the permeability to viscosity ratio of the water in the flooded zone is the same as for the oil in the oil-saturated pay. Accordingly, the treatment is based on the homogeneous fluid potential theory. The effect of the difference in density between the oil and water is neglected. .4fter deriving the proper potential distrihutions, the nature of the rise of the water-oil interface below the producing wells is calculated. The primary clean-oil-production phase is expressed in terms of the displacement efficiency, defined as the fraction of the pay flooded out by the rising water table at tlle time of first water entry. The variation of this displacement efficiency is calculated as a function of the well spacing, pay thickness, the ratio of the horizontal to vertical permeability, and the well penetration. The important parameter, other than the well penetration, is found to be the ratio of the well separation to the thickness of the oil pay multiplied by the square root of the ratio of vertical to horizontal permeability. It was found that the displacement efficiency continually decreases as this parameter increases, and for values of the latter >3.5, the efficiency varies inversely as the square of the parameter. It also increases with decreasing well penetration. Perhaps the most striking result of this phase of the analysis is the conclusion that in order to explain the delay in entry of water in wells producing by bottom water drives for periods longer than a few days normal production, with drawdowns large compared with the differential density head between the oil and water, it is necessary to assume that the vertical permeability is a very low fraction of the horizontal permeability. An analysis is also given of the production history after the water has broken through, on the assumption that the production mechanism and details of the flow distribution continue to be the same as during the phase of clean-oil production. As is to be expected, it is found that the water cut will increase at an accelerated rate as production proceeds. However, the initial differences between systems of different well penetrations or well spacings with respect to the total clean-oil production gradually decrease in terms of the variation of the water-oil ratio with cumulative production. In particular, by the time the water-oil ratio has reached values of the order of 5 or greater the cumulative recoveries will generally differ much less among various producing systems than their corresponding clean-oil recoveries. Introduction On the basis of elementary geological principles, one may classify effective water-drive fields in two groups. In the first, the entry of water into the oil-producing formation may be characterized as an edge-water encroachment. This term is used to suggest that the motion of the water proceeds largely in a direction parallel to the planes of stratification. This type of water intrusion occurs usually in thin producing zones and in strata lying along structural flanks of appreciable dip. In the second group—"bottom water-drive" fields—the water-oil interface lies in a plane of zero or slight inclination to the

Jan 1, 1947

By Albert Sauveur

THE senior author of this paper has expressed the belief that when gamma iron transforms into alpha iron on reaching the A3 point, each gamma grain does not change bodily into one or more alpha grains but that the alpha phase forms first at the boundaries and along the crystallographic planes of the austenite grains.1 To quote: On cooling through the point A, at about 900° C., iron passes from the gamma condition to a. new allotropic form generally designated as alpha. This transforma¬tion, however, is not instantaneous. There are good reasons for believing that it begins at the grain boundaries and along the octahedral planes of the crystals and that it progresses until each grain of gamma iron is changed into a grain of alpha iron, the resulting structure being similar to that of gamma iron. Were it possible to retain at room temperature pure iron but partially transformed, it seems probable that a Widmanstättian structure, or rather, as later explained, a martensitic structure would be observed (Fig. 1), consisting of alpha iron at the boundaries and at the octahedral planes, and of a groundmass of gamma iron. In order to confirm, if possible, the accuracy of that view, a number of experiments were conducted. Polished samples of electrolytic iron were heated in a vacuum, maintained in the gamma range for several hours and quenched in different media. It was hoped by such means to produce and retain on the polished surfaces a pattern which would reveal the mechanism of the allotropic transformation. The samples were placed in evacuated quartz tubes, heated to 1000° C. and held 2 hr. at that temperature. The tubes were then immersed in the quenching bath. Iced brine and liquid air were used first. The polyhedral austenitic structure existing at the time of immersion was very clearly revealed (Fig. 2). This is generally ascribed to iron volatilizing at the grain boundaries.

Jan 1, 1929

By C. M. EYE

IN the spring of 1905 I was employed by Messrs. Bradley and Requa, under our fellow member, Thomas Cox, on the mill plans for the Nevada Consolidated, when an opportunity came to go to the Philippines to erect a small mill on the property of the Benguet Consolidated. This I accepted, expecting to be away eight months or so, but it was seven years before I got back. .I sailed in May, on the Coptic, having as room-mate as far as Kobe, A. E. Drucker, who was going out to Korea for the Oriental Consolidated. It was the first trans-ocean trip for either of us, and we had some rather unusual experiences. This was toward the close of the Russo-Japanese war and the Russian fleet was known to be on the way from Suez to Asiatic waters, but it was a matter of doubt whether they would risk a passage between Japan and the mainland, or take the longer but obviously safer route outside of Japan. The Coptic carried much contraband of war for Japan, so naturally did not care to meet this fleet. No definite word being available at Honolulu, we went to the Midway Islands, but the cable station there had very little information to offer, so we proceeded cautiously toward Japan. On the last afternoon out, we steamed due north at half speed for several hours, and finally sneaked into Yokohama at night, to learn that ' the Russian fleet had met the Japanese the day before and had been annihilated. We sailed over the spot in the Sea of Japan a week later, and when we got to Manila we found three of the Russian boats interned and being guarded by the monitor Monadnock and a cruiser. This was only a matter of form, as the Russians were only too glad to be there for the rest of the war, and the boats could not have gone far anyway, for they were literally shot to pieces. The Admiral's flagship had a hole within 3 ft. of the water line, for ward, through which a man could enter by stooping.

Jan 1, 1929

||Abad, Leopoldo F, Min Engr, Div of Mines, Bureau of Science Manila, P I '23 Abadilla, Quirico A, Geol , Logo Pet Corp Box 172, Maracaibo, Venezuela '20 ||Abarquez, Ramon F, Met, Bureau of Science Manila, P I '24 ||Abbey, Robert Graham, Student, Case School of Applied Science Cleveland, Ohio '21 Abbott, A N , Mines Supt, Mazapil Copper Co, Ltd Concepcion del Oro, Zac , Mexico '23 Abbott, Clarence E , Mgr, Mines & Quarries, Tenn Coal, Iron & R R Co. 1242 Brown Marx Bldg, Birmingham, Ala '04 Abbott, Louis Benjamin, Chief Engr, Consolidation Coal Co, Elkhorn Div Jenkins, Ky '15 Abbott, Robert R , Met Engr, Peerless Motor Car Co Cleveland, Ohio '12 ||Abbott, Wells Osborn, Ray Consolidated Copper Co Hayden, Ariz '23 Abeel, George H., Jr, Cons Min Engr 4612 W 17th St, Los Angeles, Cal '18 Abel, Albert E , Asst to Pres , Valley Mould & Iron Corp Sharpsville, Pa '19 Abernathy, George Elmer, Prof of Geol & Min , Kansas State Teachers College, Pittsburg, Kan '20 Abey, Hiroshi, Min & Met Engr, Chief Engr, Takata Min Co, 2 Yeirakucho, Nichome, Kojlmachiku, Tokyo, Japan '17 ||d'Ablamg, Philip R , Millman, Old Dominion Silver-Lead Co Ellensburg, Wash '25 Aborn, R H, X-Ray Metallographic Research, Mass Inst of Tech Cambridge, Mass '19 Abouchar, Sylvain Sley, Min Engr & Geol, care of S H Sekaly, 13 Rue El Nimr.

Jan 1, 1923

By John J. Collins

Page Purpose and scope..................... 521 Core sampling......................... 521 Sludge sampling....................... 527 Combining core and sludge assays ...... 533 Deviation and surveying of drill holes. . . . 537 Conclusions........................... 544 Acknowledgments...................... 545 Bibliography.......................... 545 Purpose and Scope The purpose of this paper is to review a few of the problems involved in the interpretation of diamond-drill core and sludge samples, with the hope that it will stimulate discussion and bring forth some of the information on the subject that has been accumulated by various organizations. The release of these data would benefit the mining industry as a whole. Particularly valuable would be the details of drilling programs that have been tested by actual mining operations, as most of the available published material is unsupported by production records. The scope of this paper is limited to a few of the commonest problems of interpreting diamond-drill core and sludge samples and the deviation of holes. It does not include the description of routine operations performed by the drillers, nor the estimation of ore reserves. The methods of calculating reserves have been described,25,26,31,32,50,65 but more informa- tion is needed on the results shown by actual mining operations. Core Sampling The accuracy of diamond-drill-hole Sampling depends in large measure on the percentage of core recovery. As a general rule, the longer the run, the poorer is the recovery. Although the longer runs allow cheaper drilling costs, the determining factor should be the percentage of recovery desired. The problem is one of balancing accuracy against costs. Holes of larger diameter may show improved recovery, except as Joralemon* points out that there are some conditions in which small holes give better core recovery than large holes. This is particularly true, he says; in rocks like shattered quartzite, where larger core tends to break in angular fragments and grind up, while the diameter of smaller core is less than the distance between joint planes and grinding is not so serious. In a large measure the length of the sample run should depend on the type of deposit. Favorable drilling may allow uniform sample runs of 5 ft., 10 ft., or perhaps 20 ft. In veins or beds of relatively narrow widths and changing characteristics, however, the ore zone may be overrun and ground in a core barrel full of waste rock. Generally it is desirable to break the sample at a change in the rock or ore. Such a change; often indicated by a color change in the sludge water, should be a a for the driller to make a "dry" block and to pull out that run regardless of the length. Such a procedure permits the segregation of waste from ore samples so

Jan 1, 1946

||Abad, Leopoldo F., Min Engr, Div of Mines, Bureau of Science Manila, P I '23 Abadilla, Quirico A, Geol, Lago Pet Corp Box 172, Maracaibo, Venezuela '20 ||Abbey, Robert Graham, The W W Sly Mfg Co Train Ave, Cleveland, Ohio '21 Abbott, A. N., Mines Supt, Mazapil Copper Co, Ltd Concepcion del Oro, Mexico '23 Abbott, Clarence E., Mgr, Mines & Quarries, Tenn Coal, Iron & R R Co, 1242 Brown Marx Bldg, Birmingham, Ala. '04 Abbott, Louis Benjamin, Chief Engr , Consolidation Coal Co , Elkhorn Div Jenkins, Ky. '16 Abbott, Robert R., Met Engr , Peerless Motor Car Co Cleveland, Ohio '12 ||Abbott, Wells Osborn, Ray Consolidated Copper Co Hayden, Ariz. '23 Abeel, George H, Jr., Cons Min Engr 4612 West 17th St , Los Angeles, Cal '18 Abel, Albert E., Asst to Pres, Valley Mould & Iron Corp Sharpsville, Pa. '19 Abernathy, George Elmer, Prof of Geol & Min , Kansas State Teachers College, Pittsburg, Kans. '20 Abey, Hiroshi, Min & Met Engr, Min & Met Dept, The Higher Technical School, Osaka, Japan. '17 ||d'Ablaing, Philip R, Chem , Anaconda Copper Min Co Great Falls, Mont '25 Aborn, Robert H , Research Assoc., Mass Inst of Tech Cambridge, Mass '19 Abouchar, Sylvain Sley, Min. Engi & Geol , care of S H Sekaly, 13 Rue El Nimr, Cairo, Egypt '17

Jan 1, 1923