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By H. Rush Spedden, Arvid Thunaes

R. R. Knobler and F. E. Albertson—Following the testwork done by Thunaes and Spedden, a Sullivan deck plant was built for the Colquiri mill. This plant started to operate in April 1945 and continues in successful operation. Since May 1950 the Colquiri mill has operated with a completely revamped flowsheet at a rate of 1000 tons per day. The old Sullivan deck section was retained with this new flowsheet. The "slime plant" in Colquiri consists of one 12-cell Denver No. 18-Sp. Sub-A flotation machine, one 16-ft and one 12-ft hydroseparator, six five-deck Sullivan-frames and six shaking tables for cleaning up the Sullivan deck concentrates, as well as 12 Deister plus three Plat-O tables on which the fine sands, which are not treated on the S-decks, are concentrated. Only —325-mesh fines are treated on the Sullivan decks. The combined hydroseparator overflows are fed to the S-decks. From 1946 to 1949, i.e. with the "old" flowsheet and an average mill feed of 800 tons per day an average of 45 tons per day was treated on four Sullivan rougher frames. The two additional frames were used as cleaners. At times, up to 90 and 120 tons of slimes were treated successfully on this Sullivan deck installation. The average operating data for the S-deck section in Colquiri for the year 1949 were as follows: The tests reported in this paper indicated a tin recovery of 42 pct. The actual plant results for 1949 show a 54 pct tin recovery from the Sullivan decks. The total average quantity of tin produced from the S-deck section in 1949 was 15 tons of tin per month. This corresponds to 3 pct of the total mill recovery. The difference between the 6 pct overall recovery-increase expected after the tests in 1943 and the actual plant results given for 1949 is explained as follows. According to the tests, a total of 170 tons was expected to be routed to the Sullivan decks, but because of certain changes in the flowsheet and mill amplifications,

Jan 1, 1951

By John J. Stokes

Literature on the electrolysis of aluminum from cryolite melts and on the structure of these .melts is surveyed critically. Data on density, freezing point, and other properties are reviewed. Theories of the electrolysis are examined in the light of these data. Two theories are presented which account equally well for the observations. In the early days, the process was thought of as a simple one. The actual mechanisms must be tremendously more complex. This paper is devoted to a rather narrow part of the whole subject, namely, what ions are present in the bath, and by what mechanism the current is carried. Using cryoscopic data, Rolin has determined the following composition for molten cryolite. Na2,AlF 3Na + 3F + AlF [1] He postulates the following equation for the ioniza-tion of alumina at low concentrations Al2O3 Al + AlO2 +O. [2] At concentrations above 0.025M he supposes the ionization of alumina to proceed as follows Al2O3 AlO + AlO2. [3] Rolin's mechanism of electrolysis for the more concentrated solution in Eq. 3 is as follows. The AlO' ion migrates to the cathode. where it is dis- charged, giving metallic aluminum and 0' ions which migrate to the anode. The AlO2- ion migrates to the anode, where it is discharged, giving Al ions and oxygen which reacts with carbon to form CO2 In the case of the extremely dilute solution in Eq. 2 the Al ion migrates to the cathode and the AlO2-and 0 migrate to the anode as before. Another possible mechanism for the electrolysis follows. Ionization of Cryolite Na3AlF4 = 2Na + 2F + NaAlF, Na + AlF-AlF+Na + F [4] Addition of Alumina 2Na2AlF+ 2AL2O4 6Na + 3A12O3F4 [5a] Al2O2F 2AlOF2 [5b] Cathode Process AlF, + 3e+ 4F + Al. [6] Anode Process AlOF2 + 2F AlF1 + 1/20, + 2e or A12O2F + 4F-2A1F; + 0, + 4e. [7] Although both Rolin's and the present mechanism of the Hall process may be qualitatively satisfactory, present data are not adequate for quantitative tests of the theories.

Jan 1, 1959

By David R. Mitchell

The mineral pyrite (or marcasite) occurs in coal beds as balls, lenses, veinlets and bands. Several million tons are wasted annually on the refuse dumps from coal mining and coal-preparation activities. Sporadic attempts have been made in the United States to recover this pyrite for manufacture of sulphuric acid but only a few plants have succeeded in recovering it on a commercial scale. Several chemical companies in the East became concerned about supplies of pyrite early in 1943, but by late summer of that year the situation had eased. If for no other reason than national security and self-sufficiency during wartime, methods of recovering pyrite from coal-mine refuse should be worked out and made available to coal-mine operators who are potential producers of pyrite. Eastern sulphuric-acid plants are particularly likely to have their sources of raw material blocked by war conditions, so that special studies to determine where supplies of pyrite can be obtained for these plants from inland sources are desirable. Davis's1 summarization of conditions during World War I gives the following facts: During those years, the shortage of pyrite became acute. Shipments of hand-picked pyrite were made from a number of coal mines in Illinois, Indiana, western Kentucky, Ohio and Pennsylvania. A mechanical concentrating plant for sepa- rating pyrite from picking-table refuse was built at Danville, Ill., and operated for several years, and a small pyrite-concen-trating plant treating washery refuse near Gillespie, Ill., operated for several months in 1918. The Consolidation Coal Co. of Fairmont, W. Va., constructed and operated a sulphuric-acid plant using pyrite recovered from coal-mine refuse. The U. S. Bureau of Mines during 1917-1919 made a comprehensive survey of pyrite-production possibilities from coal mines and estimated that there was a potential yearly production of 435.000 tons from Ohio and Pennsylvania and 928,000 tons from Kansas, Missouri, Iowa, Illinois, and Indiana mines. This estimate included only mines that could produce one per cent or more of their coal production as pyrite containing a minimum of 40 per cent sulphur. PyRite Production According to the Minerals Yearbook,2 approximately 660,000 long tons of pyrite was produced in the United States in 1941, with an average sulphur content of 42 per cent. The average value f.o.b. mines was $3.09 per long ton. Spanish pyrite, 48 per cent sulphur minimum, was quoted at 12 cents a unit c.i.f. U. S. ports, equal to $5.76 a ton for shipments of minimum sulphur content. Most of the pyrite produced in the United States is obtained as a by-product in the dressing of copper and zinc ores. Metal mines in the East making pyrite concentrate for the market or use in company-operated sulphuric-acid plants

Jan 1, 1944

By David R. Mitchell

The mineral pyrite (or marcasite) occurs in coal beds as balls, lenses, veinlets and bands. Several million tons are wasted annually on the refuse dumps from coal mining and coal-preparation activities. Sporadic attempts have been made in the United States to recover this pyrite for manufacture of sulphuric acid but only a few plants have succeeded in recovering it on a commercial scale. Several chemical companies in the East became concerned about supplies of pyrite early in 1943, but by late summer of that year the situation had eased. If for no other reason than national security and self-sufficiency during wartime, methods of recovering pyrite from coal-mine refuse should be worked out and made available to coal-mine operators who are potential producers of pyrite. Eastern sulphuric-acid plants are particularly likely to have their sources of raw material blocked by war conditions, so that special studies to determine where supplies of pyrite can be obtained for these plants from inland sources are desirable. Davis's1 summarization of conditions during World War I gives the following facts: During those years, the shortage of pyrite became acute. Shipments of hand-picked pyrite were made from a number of coal mines in Illinois, Indiana, western Kentucky, Ohio and Pennsylvania. A mechanical concentrating plant for sepa- rating pyrite from picking-table refuse was built at Danville, Ill., and operated for several years, and a small pyrite-concen-trating plant treating washery refuse near Gillespie, Ill., operated for several months in 1918. The Consolidation Coal Co. of Fairmont, W. Va., constructed and operated a sulphuric-acid plant using pyrite recovered from coal-mine refuse. The U. S. Bureau of Mines during 1917-1919 made a comprehensive survey of pyrite-production possibilities from coal mines and estimated that there was a potential yearly production of 435.000 tons from Ohio and Pennsylvania and 928,000 tons from Kansas, Missouri, Iowa, Illinois, and Indiana mines. This estimate included only mines that could produce one per cent or more of their coal production as pyrite containing a minimum of 40 per cent sulphur. PyRite Production According to the Minerals Yearbook,2 approximately 660,000 long tons of pyrite was produced in the United States in 1941, with an average sulphur content of 42 per cent. The average value f.o.b. mines was $3.09 per long ton. Spanish pyrite, 48 per cent sulphur minimum, was quoted at 12 cents a unit c.i.f. U. S. ports, equal to $5.76 a ton for shipments of minimum sulphur content. Most of the pyrite produced in the United States is obtained as a by-product in the dressing of copper and zinc ores. Metal mines in the East making pyrite concentrate for the market or use in company-operated sulphuric-acid plants

Jan 1, 1944

SULPHUR is a very well known mineral and apparently is produced in many places. It is engendered from an unctuous earthy and powerfully hot substance so that it is considered among experienced workers to bear a resemblance to the element of fire. This is called by these same men the masculine seed and the prime agent of Nature in the composition of metals. Because of its great dryness and heat it has, as experience shows, affinity with fire, which is easily introduced in it when brought near. And once introduced the fire is quenched only with difficulty before its unctuousness is wholly consumed. Although it shows itself to us of such a hot and dry nature, we must not think that sulphur is a substance so pure that it can stand by itself or that in order to attain its form it has no need of its portion and part of moisture like every other mixture. This is shown to us by its easy fusion, in which it resembles the metals. This thing is found in many places and in many varieties of color; some are white, others yellow and orange, and some others between gray and black. They also say that some red is found. It does not occur in that arrangement of veins like other minerals, but most liberal Nature makes whole mountains of it as is seen in the Aeolian islands, [26] near Sicily, in Etna or Moncibello which is the island of Sicily, at Pozzuoli, in the territory of Rome, in the Sienese domain at San Filippo, and in many other similar places. It is a substance that has a very strong odor and is most unpleasant to smell. It is very fixed in its substance so that it is never corrupted by time, by boiling, or by the moisture of water. For although it may stand in water a long time it never becomes soft nor does it ever decrease or increase in weight. It is brittle and easily crushed very fine. It is said that a trace of garlic rubbed on the mortar helps anyone who wishes to reduce it to impalpability. Its ores have a form more like earth than like stone although they some¬times have the color of a certain soft rock. The places where it is found are easily recognized by the great odor that they give out and by the very hot baths that often spring forth near it. What I have already told you about quicksilver that is contrary to the

Jan 1, 1942

By Luis Toron, Salvador Cortes-Obregon

THE Oaxaca coal fields, shown in Fig. 1, are located in the Alta Mixteca region in the states of Oaxaca, Puebla, and Guerrero. Known out crops are scattered over 3125 square miles. It is probable that further exploration will reveal a more extensive area of deposits. The region is of great importance to Mexico, as at present the only sources of coal are the fields near the U. S. border. Steel mills are also located in the North, and finished products must travel 600 to 800 miles to the area of consumption in central Mexico. The Oaxaca coal, only 120 miles south of Mexico, D.F., lies close to several iron ore deposits. If this coal can be used in steel production is will be possible for the Mexican steel industry to reach new dimensions, commensurate with the growing industry of the central region. Coal can be utilized in thermoelectric plants in this area, which lacks not only petroleum and natural gas but also electric power. It can be used as domestic fuel, replacing charcoal and firewood.

Jan 5, 1954

By Walter Rose

Theoretical expressions are presented to describe wetting and non-wetting phase relative premeability relations. These expressions have then been compared with existing published data, the conformance noted being sufficiently good to satisfy the requirements of some engineering use. As a consequence, it may be supposed that relative permeability characteristics of porous media now can be inferred from basic core analysis data, in a manner more convenient (although less direct) than presently available methods of experimental evaluation. INTRODUCTION This paper presents a new approach to the problem of relative permeability evaluation. A classification of published discussions of relative permeability concepts which have appeared in the petroleum literature will show that previously emphasis has been placed on methods of experimental measurement, on the interpretation of the data so obtained with respect to the variable properties of the system, and on theoretical and practical considerations which relate relative permeability to gross fluid behavior in petroleum reservoirs. Essentially, no detailed examination has appeared which treats the fundamental factors controlling the quantitative features of the relative permeability relation*, although cer- tain references can be Cited where a qualitative awareness of their existence and nature is indicated. This condition is explainable in terms of the recognized complexity of the problem, and in order to provide some basis for theoretical development, the general emphasis has been placed in the past on experimental procedures of evaluation, the validity of which, in principle, could be confirmed by the analysis of well and reservoir performance. However, because of the experimental difficulties which have been encountered (notably, difficulties due to the so-called "end effects"), and because of the general unreliability of field performance tests required to study the applicability of the data, relative permeability phenomena continue to be incompletely understood and described.? In this paper is examined the possibility of predicting relative permeabilities entirely from fundamental considerations. In addition, attention is called to certain important factors, previously unemphasized in the published literature, which now can serve as a basis for the eventual experimental confirmation of this and similar theoretical approaches, as well as the experimental solution of the problem in general. Therefore, the analysis presented herein has the dual purpose both of orienting future experimental activity and also of providing an immediate solution for the relative permeability porblem, sufficiently adequate for some engineering use. It will be seen that the conclusions reached are supported by theoretical and intuitive considerations, and they are not contradicted insofar as gross features are concerned by existing concepts and interpretations of published experimental data, except as specifically noted. Darcy's law, expressed simply as: k dp q = k/u dp/dx .......(1) where q is linear rate of flow (assumed horizontal), k is the † The poor comparison usually obtained between laboratory and field gas-oil ratios (c.f.. Fig. 4 of paper by L. E. Elkins) is illustrative of conditions which dimcourage unqualified acceptance of the results of previous studies except as presently useful approximations. In this connection, Evinger and Muskat have discussed in detail the discrepancy observed between field well productivity values and values obtained from the analysis of laboratory flow data.

Jan 1, 1949

By Walter Rose

Theoretical expressions are presented to describe wetting and non-wetting phase relative premeability relations. These expressions have then been compared with existing published data, the conformance noted being sufficiently good to satisfy the requirements of some engineering use. As a consequence, it may be supposed that relative permeability characteristics of porous media now can be inferred from basic core analysis data, in a manner more convenient (although less direct) than presently available methods of experimental evaluation. INTRODUCTION This paper presents a new approach to the problem of relative permeability evaluation. A classification of published discussions of relative permeability concepts which have appeared in the petroleum literature will show that previously emphasis has been placed on methods of experimental measurement, on the interpretation of the data so obtained with respect to the variable properties of the system, and on theoretical and practical considerations which relate relative permeability to gross fluid behavior in petroleum reservoirs. Essentially, no detailed examination has appeared which treats the fundamental factors controlling the quantitative features of the relative permeability relation*, although cer- tain references can be Cited where a qualitative awareness of their existence and nature is indicated. This condition is explainable in terms of the recognized complexity of the problem, and in order to provide some basis for theoretical development, the general emphasis has been placed in the past on experimental procedures of evaluation, the validity of which, in principle, could be confirmed by the analysis of well and reservoir performance. However, because of the experimental difficulties which have been encountered (notably, difficulties due to the so-called "end effects"), and because of the general unreliability of field performance tests required to study the applicability of the data, relative permeability phenomena continue to be incompletely understood and described.? In this paper is examined the possibility of predicting relative permeabilities entirely from fundamental considerations. In addition, attention is called to certain important factors, previously unemphasized in the published literature, which now can serve as a basis for the eventual experimental confirmation of this and similar theoretical approaches, as well as the experimental solution of the problem in general. Therefore, the analysis presented herein has the dual purpose both of orienting future experimental activity and also of providing an immediate solution for the relative permeability porblem, sufficiently adequate for some engineering use. It will be seen that the conclusions reached are supported by theoretical and intuitive considerations, and they are not contradicted insofar as gross features are concerned by existing concepts and interpretations of published experimental data, except as specifically noted. Darcy's law, expressed simply as: k dp q = k/u dp/dx .......(1) where q is linear rate of flow (assumed horizontal), k is the † The poor comparison usually obtained between laboratory and field gas-oil ratios (c.f.. Fig. 4 of paper by L. E. Elkins) is illustrative of conditions which dimcourage unqualified acceptance of the results of previous studies except as presently useful approximations. In this connection, Evinger and Muskat have discussed in detail the discrepancy observed between field well productivity values and values obtained from the analysis of laboratory flow data.

Jan 1, 1949

C. P. BOWIE, San Francisco, Cal.-In my work with the U.S. Bureau of Mines, I have been detailed to report on oil storage containers, and in going around the country I have, been much interested in, the possibilities in the use of concrete for such containers. In talking with a good many people, I have discovered that concrete is being used A good deal for a wide variety of oils ranging from 14° to as high as 40° Bé., especially, by some of the western railroads:, If any member has had experience, in storing gasoline in concrete, I should like to learn of it. DORSEY HAGER, Tulsa, Okla.-Mr. M J. Munn, formerly .with the U. S. Geological Survey, acid connected with the Gypsy Oil Co., until a short time ago, has invented a invented a method for the application of concrete to the storage not only of crude oil but of refined products:. The Cosden Oil Co., of Tulsa, is now working on that plan, and, expects to store refined products in concrete tanks. THE CHAIRMAN (I.N. KNAPP, Ardmore Pa.).-I have had considerable experience in building masonry tanks for gas Holders. I do not believe it is possible to build a concrete or masonry tank of any kind. With hydraulic cement, mortar, which will be absolutely water-tight, unless the bottom and inner wall, after completion are waterproofed with some impervious material. The same will be true of oil tanks, the bottom and inner face of which must be made impervious to oil. Masonry tanks are intended to be sunk in the ground. All that the wall of the tank then amounts to is a retaining wall to keep the excavation in shape and to receive an impervious coating. The bottom of, a; tank, when empty, must be protected by a relief valve from any hydraulic: pressure acting from below. At ordinary prices, for sheets, a tank 100 ft. diam by 20 ft. deep can be built of steel much quicker and cheaper than of masonry. Several years, ago I saw very large oil storage tank under construction in California the bottom and sides being concrete. The sides were, sloped at about the single of repose for the material excavated: If you build a steel oil tank, you can get. .men for the work who do nothing else, and you, are likely to get a satisfactory job; but if you wish to build a concrete or masonry tank it is almost: impossible to find men skilled in building absolutely water-tight masonry Work. The general idea is that any laborer can mix up concrete in any old way and make a,

Jan 1, 1918

By C. J. McHargue

THE angles between the crystallographic planes in cubic crystals have been given by Bozorth,¹ in magnesium, zinc, and cadmium by Salkovitz,² and in tin by Nicholas. The determination of the orientation of single crystals and the study of plastic deformation require the knowledge of these angles and are often facilitated by use of a standard projection. Tables of these angles and standard projections have not been published for titanium or zirconium which have c/a ratios considerably less than those hexagonal metals for which this data is available. Accordingly, Table I has been prepared giving these angles. Fig. 1 presents a standard (0001) projection of titanium. The angle between (h1k1i1l1) and (h2k2i2l2) was calculated by means of the formula: h1h2 + K1K2 + 1/2 (h1k2 + h2k1 + cos 4 = [(hi2 + K + h1k1 + 3/4 l12 (h2² + C" a² 3/4 — l1 l2 C² k2²+ h2k2 + 3/4 —l2²) ] 1/2 c² The c/a ratio for titanium is taken from the data

Jan 1, 1953

By T. A. Rickard

Flaubert, as we know, laid stress on the selection of the right word, le mot juste, the precise epithet, the word that belongs to the thing. A sentence, or even a paragraph, may be spoiled by the use of a word that is not proper, that does not fit or is foreign to the meaning intended. An Australian mining expert is reported to have said: You have a property of considerable value, and what I saw warrants a good development of very rich cubicular galena, with gossan intermixed. 'Cubicular' means `belonging to a small bedroom', a `cubicle' being a sleeping compartment. He meant `cubic', of course. This is a malapropism, and reminds me of the lady from Chicago that, on her return from Europe, said how much she had enjoyed the rural parts of France, because, among other things, it was "so delightful to hear the French pheasants singing the mayonnaise to the tune of the Los Angelus". It is impossible to amalgamate coal-tar thoroughly with the pulp in the agitating-tank. In metallurgy, `amalgamate' refers to the combination of mercury with one or both of the precious metals, forming an amalgam, which is an alloy of mercury with another metal. It differs from other alloys, such as brass or bronze, in being made without the aid of heat, inasmuch as mercury is molten at the ordinary temperature. The word comes to us from the Greek. through Old French and means `something soft'. It is a mistake to use technical terms, having a specific meaning, for purposes that are foreign to that meaning. The writer of the quotation is not discussing any combination of metals; he is dealing with the physical process of mixing and is using 'amal-

Jan 1, 1931

By R. Dawson Hall

Discussion of the paper of R. DAWSON HALL, presented at the San Francisco meeting, September, 1915, and at the New York meeting, February, 1916, and printed in Bulletin No. 105, September, 1915, pp. 2013 to 2021. R. DAWSON HALL, New York, N. Y.-The general practice in the past has been to view the roof as being somewhat subject only to shear. In fact the action of the roof under the stress of its own weight has been but little considered, not because the matter is unimportant but because it is so complicated that it has been felt that an analysis of it would not result in any conclusions definite enough to justify the inquiry. The result has been that the consideration of the subject has fallen into the hands of persons who are not experts in the study of beam and plate stress. They have been disposed naturally to view the destruction of the roof as the outcome of the simplest of stresses-vertical shear. In the lack of a careful consideration of the conditions of roof fracture it was thought that the roof consisted of a number of horizontal layers, which were each of them weak, because, no matter how strong they might be they usually lacked sufficient depth. This view of the condition of the roof would naturally lead one to expect that it would yield to bending moment, the various layers succumbing one by one to their lack of the necessary radius of gyration to meet such severe stresses. But,

Jan 5, 1916

By J. PARK

Discussion of the paper of J. PARSE CHANNING, presented at the New York meeting, February, 1915, and printed in Bulletin No. 99, March, 1915, pp. 529 to 538. FRED H. RINDGE, JR., * New York, N. Y.-It is interesting to note that although this movement was started only seven years ago at Yale, it has spread in that brief time to 200 colleges and technical schools, anti thousands of men are interested in it. There are 3,000 graduates who became acquainted with the movement in college days anti are now promoting the industrial betterment idea all over the country. Some of these men are employed entirely in this work, and the number of such workers is constantly increasing. We feel we are really doing a very fundamental thing in getting so many coming engineers and prospective employers of labor to interest themselves in these things which we have been discussing this morning; these things which are so vital to efficiency and success in any line of business or engineering to-clay. Of course the institutions located in our large industrial centers have the greatest opportunity for practical service. But I have just returned from one college, Pennsylvania State College, where 300 engineering students in three clays signed up as interested in this movement and as anxious to take active part in the work this summer. That is one of a number of colleges situated in towns where there are 110 industrial opportunities. Therefore, their field of service must be where they work

Jan 5, 1915

By C. P. Parsons

During the past year considerable interest has been shown in cementing operations for shutting off bottom water, whipstocking, etc. A number of plug-back methods have been used, with various adaptations for special conditions, but those described in this paper are representative of the methods now in use. Conditioning the Well Various preliminary operations for improving the results from plug-back operations have been evolved. In one method, a nitroglycerin shot is discharged at the upper portion of the formation to be plugged off, the purpose being to make a wide place in the hole in order to give the cement a more secure anchor against thrust pressure of the water against the bottom of the cement plug after the well is again put on production. Another is intended to attain a similar result by under-reaming a wide place in the hole by means of a rotary wall scraper. In one well in which this device was used there was a water sand at the bottom of the well immediately below the cap rock above which the oil sand occurred. Before the plugging back operation, the water sand was underreamed in an attempt to get a square shoulder on the underside of the cap rock, in order to prevent the water from breaking in over the top of the cement plug after the well should be put on production, and also to get a more secure anchor for the cement plug against the thrust pressure of the water against it. As an aid in calculating the amount of cement required to fill a given amount of hole to be plugged back, a device has been developed for measuring and recording the irregularities and cavities in open holes, called an "open-hole recording caliper." If consists of a steel shell, 5 in. in diameter, which encloses a recording mechanism that receives impressions from four movable arms that make sliding contact with the wall of the hole. The arms operate a ratchet, which raises and lowers a recording stylus against a chart. Each arm registers its own radius. The device is run into a well on a steel measuring line. While the device is being lowered, the arms are folded inside the shell; they are

Jan 1, 1936

By C. P. Parsons

During the past year considerable interest has been shown in cementing operations for shutting off bottom water, whipstocking, etc. A number of plug-back methods have been used, with various adaptations for special conditions, but those described in this paper are representative of the methods now in use. Conditioning the Well Various preliminary operations for improving the results from plug-back operations have been evolved. In one method, a nitroglycerin shot is discharged at the upper portion of the formation to be plugged off, the purpose being to make a wide place in the hole in order to give the cement a more secure anchor against thrust pressure of the water against the bottom of the cement plug after the well is again put on production. Another is intended to attain a similar result by under-reaming a wide place in the hole by means of a rotary wall scraper. In one well in which this device was used there was a water sand at the bottom of the well immediately below the cap rock above which the oil sand occurred. Before the plugging back operation, the water sand was underreamed in an attempt to get a square shoulder on the underside of the cap rock, in order to prevent the water from breaking in over the top of the cement plug after the well should be put on production, and also to get a more secure anchor for the cement plug against the thrust pressure of the water against it. As an aid in calculating the amount of cement required to fill a given amount of hole to be plugged back, a device has been developed for measuring and recording the irregularities and cavities in open holes, called an "open-hole recording caliper." If consists of a steel shell, 5 in. in diameter, which encloses a recording mechanism that receives impressions from four movable arms that make sliding contact with the wall of the hole. The arms operate a ratchet, which raises and lowers a recording stylus against a chart. Each arm registers its own radius. The device is run into a well on a steel measuring line. While the device is being lowered, the arms are folded inside the shell; they are

Jan 1, 1936

By AIME AIME

As already announced in the January Bulletin, this publication will be issued during the coming year monthly instead of bi-monthly as heretofore. Among other reasons for this change, it is desired to effect thereby the earlier transmission to members of important papers, lists of candidates for membership, and other items of timely information. Spokane Meeting and Excursions. Further details of the 97th meeting of the Institute have been sent to members in the Circular of May 8, 1909. The list of those intending to go on the excursion is filling up, and since preference in position of state-room or berth is given in the order of application, members and guests who expect to accompany the party and have not yet communicated with Mr.. Theodore Dwight, 29 West 39th St., New York, N. Y., are earnestly requested to do so without delay. For convenience of the members a summary of the additional information is here presented. A special train of Pullman cars will leave Chicago about September 15. This train will be side-tracked at all places visited, and the sleepers will be available for lodging and the dining-car for meals during the entire trip, except during the Yellowstone Park tour. The general cost of the trip per member will be $300, which includes transportation, berth, and meals for the entire trip from Chicago back to Chicago, almost 6,000 miles, and the tour through. Yellowstone Park, occupying in all about 30 days. Special, accommodations on the train will be furnished at the following rates

Jun 1, 1909

By James E. Howard

AT the request of the Council of the Institute, I have the honor to submit the following remarks upon the Program of Tests under which the current work of the Watertown Arsenal Testing Laboratory is carried on, which comprises, among other items, the tests of steel ingot metal and derivative shapes. The intended scope of the tests may be illustrated by extracts from the descriptive part of the program as submitted by the Laboratory under date of April 17, 1907, and subsequently approved by the Chief of Ordnance, U. S. A. Under Item 1, Ingot Metal-Open hearth, acid and basic; Bessemer, acid and basic; crucible; fluid compressed and uncompressed-descriptive remarks were made as follows ; " A thorough, fundamental inquiry into the physical properties of steel necessarily begins with the ingot metal. Investigations, having for their object the improvement of steels, should also begin with the ingot. A knowledge of the ingot structure is essential for judging of the subsequent behavior or appearance of the metal. Under ordinary conditions, so little information is obtained from the ingot in individual cases that practically none of importance is acquired. These remarks have particular reference to the state of physical and structural soundness of the steel. Questions of chemical composition, segregation, piping and the grosser cavities have frequently been given attention. Defects of continuity of structure, which manifest themselves in the working; of the metal, and at the final stages cause distrust in the finished forging, have generally been neglected. ? The range in physical properties in a given composition of metal, as shown in Tests of Metals, 1902 and 1903, is very great. Tests are there found which, when the results are

Mar 1, 1908

By C. S. Finney, John Mitchell

The growing popularity in the United States of the vertical-flue even was emphasized when in 1905 the United States Steel Corp. chose the Koppers oven as the type which best suited their requirements. Heinrich Koppers was born on November 23. 1872. at a small farm in Walbeck near Geldern on the lower Rhine. When young Koppers was eight years old, however the family moved away from the farm to the industrial city of Bochum in the Ruhr. Here Koppers attended public school and subsequently served an apprenticeship to a tinsmith before taking a job as a lathe operator with a local steel company. He had ambitions to be much more than a machinist, however, and used his week-ends and evenings to improve his theoretical background by taking courses at a vocational-training school in Bochum. After winning the highest honor the school could bestow (the silver Staats-medaille), Koppers went on to continue his education at the Rheinisch-Westfalische Hüttenschule in Duisberg. One of his teachers there, Fritz Wüst who later became a professor at the Technische Hochschule at Aachen, recognizing Koppers' unusual abilities, predicted for him a great future. In 1894 Heinrich Koppers joined the firm of Dr. C. Otto and Co. in Dahlhausen, and in 1899 while superintendent of the Mathias Stinnes mine he built his first battery of ovens for Hugo Stinnes, the German industrialist. Two years later he started his own organization, and in 1902 he made Essen his headquarters. It was to Essen that a group of engineers from the United States Steel Corp. went in 1906 with an invitation to Koppers to design and supervise the construction of four batteries of ovens at the Joliet works of the Illinois Steel Co. Each battery was to consist of 70 ovens. Arriving in the United States in 1907, Koppers established a branch of his firm in Joliet, and construction began. The first battery was fired on July 27, 1908. Rugged and simple, these ovens incorporated basic design features which were to make the Koppers oven and its future modifications the choice of a very large segment of the by-product coking industry of America. The 280 ovens at Joliet were 35 ft long, 8 ¾ ft in height, and tapered from 21 to 17 in. The total daily capacity of the four batteries was 2240 tons of coke. The ovens were of the new cross-regenerative type; that is, instead of longitudinal regenerators serving an entire battery, as in the older Koppers ovens, cross regenerators for each separate oven were employed. Fuel gas was supplied from the side of the battery through ducts in the brickwork known as gun flues, which reached to the center of the battery under the vertical heating-flues. Removable, ceramic gas-nozzles fitted at the top of each gun flue helped to insure good control over the distribution of the fuel gas, and uniform heating conditions were also promoted by regulating the air supply to, and the suction in, each heating flue. A different refractory w& used for each battery. One was built of American silica brick, one of American quartzite, and two of imported German quartzite. The installation at Joliet proved to be very successful, and in 1911, 490 additional' Koppers ovens were built for the Illinois Steel Co. at the great new steelworks at Gary, Ind. By 1912 the H. Koppers Co. had established its headquarters in Chicago and was rapidly extending its business to include construction for such iron and steel companies as the Woodward Iron Co. at Woodward, Ma. (80 ovens in 1912); the Tennessee Coal, Iron and Rail- road Co. at Fairfield, Ala. (280 ovens in 1912); the Inland Steel Co. at Indiana Harbor, Ind. (86 ovens during 1913 and 1914) ; and the Republic Iron and Steel Co. at Youngstown, Ohio (68 ovens in 1913). In 1914 a group of men in Pittsburgh bought a major shareholding in the H. Koppers Co., and moved the headquarters of the organization from Chicago to their own city. Under its new management the company was highly successful in obtaining a large share of the contracts for by-product installations built during World War I. In 1917 the remaining German interests in the company were

Jan 1, 1961

By R. B. Russell

SINCE Cahn's¹ paper on plastic deformation in orthorhombic (a) uranium an increasing amount of work is to be expected on orientation of single crystals and preferred orientation in this metal. It would seem desirable to have a table of angles between crystallographic planes (hkl) and (HKL). Table I shows these angles as distances from (loo), (0l0), and (00l), and in Fig. 1 as a standard (001) stereographic projection. Only the locations of poles whose diffracting planes produce Cu Ka reflections up to 0 = 70.5" (i.e. (154) ) are given." The relative reflection of these planes are represented by circle diameters. It is hoped that the projection may also be used in making inverse pole figures, originally suggested by Harris.' Values of 4 were calculated from the expression hH kK 1L cos = hH/a²+kK/b²-lL/c² where the lattice parameters a, b, c, and the spac-ings d were taken from the work of Jacob and Warren." (They report a = 2.852 kX (2.8578 A), b = 5.865 kX (5.8768 A), c = 4.945 kX (4.9550 A).) The parameters reported by them may be subject to revision,4,5 accordingly the interplanar angles are listed to only the nearest tenth of a degree. References ¹R. W. Cahn: Acta Metallurgica (1953) 1, p. 49. ¹G. B. Harris: Philosophical Magazine (1952) 43, p. 113. 3C. W. Jacob and B. E. Warren: Journal ACS (1937) 59, p. 2588. 4J. S. Lukesh: Acta Crystallographica (1949) 2, p. 420. ³ J. Thewlis: Nature (1951) 168, p. 198.

Jan 1, 1954

By Gill Montgomery

The strong upward curve of fluorspar consumption continued through 1968, with domestic producers unable to furnish more than 30% of U.S. requirements. Stocks of all grades were quite short at all points during most of 1968. This resulted in price increases as both domestic and foreign producers sought to cover spiralling labor costs. Further increases are probable for 1969. All Illinois mines were closed by strikes in January and February. The strong trend in metallurgical imports reflects the increased use of fluorspar in steelmaking, as new oxygen process steel plants come into production. The growth of use of all fluorocarbon chemicals continues to require additional acid grade fluorspar, with military uses a major factor. Several new aluminum smelting facilities coming into production are adding to the aluminum fluoride needs, bringing further pressure upon the world supply of acid grade fluorspar. The world-wide consumption pressure on all grades of fluorspar is pushing prices up, and no end to the tight supply is in sight, even assuming that all the new projects cited here are finished on schedule.

Jan 3, 1969