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By J. D. Hunt, R. J. McDonald

It is proposed that extensive fluid motion occurs between the dendrites of a Partially solid casting and it is suggested the A segregates in steel castings are a direct result of this motion. The fluid flow arises because of density differences between liquid ahead of the dendrites and the interdendritic liquid. Experiments are described on a model system investigating this fluid motion. The importance of interdendritic fluid flow is discussed with reference to longitudinal segregation. SERIOUS macro segregation is often found in large killed steel ingots. Among the most common segregates are those known as A and V, Fig. 1. The A segregates are arranged over the surface of cones, the wide parts being at the base of the ingot. The A segregates are pencil like in shape and extend from the columnar into the equiaxed region. The V segregates are distributed over inverted cones but have a less well defined shape. They occur at the center of the ingot. Because of the commercial importance of macro inhomogenities these segregates have attracted wide-scale attention. The segregates contain alloying elements and impurities which depress the freezing temperature and are thus the last liquid to freeze. A number of explanations have been proposed to explain their presence. It has been suggested1'' that the segregates are the result of the equiaxed zone growing towards the columnar region together with the interaction of convection within the bulk liquid. It has also been proposed that the segregates are the result of nucleation and rapid growth ahead of the dendritic front.3 Neither of these explanations is completely satisfactory because A segregates are pencil shaped and are not found as continuous cones. In this paper an alternative mechanism is proposed, and experiments are described on a model system to determine whether the mechanism occurs in practice. It is thought that A and V segregates are not peculiar to steels but should occur in many other large castings. Fluid motion within the bulk liquid region of a casting has been extensively discussed. Little attention has been paid to fluid motion within the partially solid regions. The work415 that has been done has been mainly concerned with the fluid motion which results from the volume contraction on freezing. The volume contraction is used to explain various types of macro segregation. The present authors suggest that in many cases the fluid flow resulting from volume contraction will be small compared with that due to other causes. When the columnar region is growing, the liquid still remaining between the dendrites has a much lower temperature near the ingot walls than at the dendrite tips. The composition of the liquid in contact with solid will vary with temperature. The density of the liquid will thus vary both because of changes in temperature and composition. The layers of different density liquid will give rise to a slow but steady liquid flow through the interdendritic regions. If there is no density change with composition, the temperature gradient within the dendritic region should give rise to a downward flow between the dendrites, shown schematically in Fig. 2. When the liquid density changes appreciably with alloy concentration this motion could either be en-

Jan 1, 1970

By L. C. Campbell

THE purpose of any accident-prevention program is the curtailment or entire elimination of injuries and fatalities. It is a job that is never finished in the coal-mining industry. Day by day, on shift and off shift, men are exposed to injury and death in varying numbers. Seldom is it possible to lock up at the end of the shift and leave a mine plant in the care of a sleepy watchman, as can be done at most manufacturing plants. Even on off shifts there are maintenance and supply crews, coal cutters, pumpers and ventilation men exposed to danger. The prevention program of The Koppers Coal Co. recognizes two primary facts: First, no program can be successful without the full support of the management and complete knowledge of the job at hand on the part of every supervisor. Second, and equally important, is the full cooperation of every employee in observing the safety rules and practices set up by the management. Conscious day-to-day concern for his safety by the indi-vidual worker is the longest stride toward a good safety experience. How to accomplish the education of the individual worker and super-visor for safety is the problem of The Koppers Coal Co. as it is the problem of all coal companies.

Jan 1, 1939

By A. E. Wraith, N. J. Petch, J. D. Embury, E. S. Wright

The two most important parameters controlling the fracture behavior of a solid are its intrinsic properties, e.g.,grain size, and the operative stress system. The latter may be modified in laminates by the presence of weak interfaces. This is studied in notch-impact tests on a mode1 system of mild steel laminates containing a variety of interfaces. The effect of these is evaluated in terms of the ductile/cleavage transition. Two laminate geometries are distinguished, here called "crack-arrester " and "crack-divider". In both, cleavage is inhibited. This arises because of relaxation of a state of triaxial tension. In the crack-avrester laminates, cleavage initiated at a notch is confined to the layer containing the notch. In crack-cliuider laminates, a thick specimen behaves as the Sum of a number of thinner ones. Additional benefit may derive from improved intritnsic propevties of- the lanlinate layers arising from greater deformation in their manufacture. It has long been recognized that the two most important parameters controlling the fracture behavior of solids are their intrinsic properties (e.g., grain size friction stress,3 distribution of second phase particles4) and the operative stress system under which fracture occurs. In solids that show a ductile/cleavage transition, cleavage is favored by the presence of a notch. This is because triaxial tensions, generated by the localized plastic constraint at the notch, are operative when fracture occurs.= Anything that suppresses these triaxial tensions will be unfavorable to cleavage. Such suppression may possibly occur in laminates containing weak interfaces and the purpose of the present paper is to explore this possibility. Two basic laminate geometries, here termed "crack-avrester" and "cvack-divider", are examined. They are illustrated in Fig. 1. With the crack-arrester laminates, there is the possibility that, when the fracture crack approaches the interface, this, if weak, may delaminate due to the tensile stress acting parallel to the plane of the crack.= If this happens, energy will be used in delamination, the crack will be completely blunted, and the triaxial tension associated with the crack will be relaxed. To fracture the second portion of the laminate, crack reinitiation will be necessary and, because of the relaxation of the triaxial tension, this reinitiation will occur under conditions of nearly uniaxial tension, which are unfavorable to cleavage. Thus there is the possibility of cleavage suppression in the second and subsequent subunits of a crack-arrester laminate. With the crack-divider geometry, there is again the possibility of delamination at the interfaces. This will divide the crack into a series of cracks propagating through the individual laminate subunits. If these are sufficiently thin, the triaxial tension will be relaxed towards a state of biaxial tension in each of them. Thus, with the crack-divider laminates, there is again the possibility of cleavage inhibition. In the present work, these possibilities are explored using a notched impact test on mild steel laminates bonded with soft solder, silver solder or copper. Even if delamination does not occur, it is still possible that cleavage may be inhibited in laminates. With the crack-arrester geometry, the cleavage crack in the first layer may be blunted and arrested by plastic deformation in the laminate bond, if this is ductile. Partial relaxation of the stress transmitted ahead of the crack into the second layer will then result and this will reduce the significance of this stress in the fracture of the second layer. With the crack-divider geometry, there cannot be much effect in the absence of delamination unless a large amount of energy is absorbed in rupturing the ductile material. EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS The composition of the mild steel (wt pet) was: 0.04 C, 0.29 Mn, 0.01 Si, 0.006 P, 0.008 S. "As-received" plate was annealed for 2 hr at 900°C and slowly cooled to give a grain size of 0.04 mm. The laminates were made by brazing or soldering together mild steel plates 8 by 3 in. by various thicknesses. These were obtained from the annealed plate by machining, so that the intrinsic material properties were .kept constant. Laminates containing two to six steel layers were studied using standard Charpy V-notch specimens cut from the bonded plates. Standard homogeneous specimens from the annealed plate and subsize ones from the laminate components

Jan 1, 1968

By Lawrence Dykers

The paper presents a generalized history of the growth and utilization of electronic data processing in a medium- size, mining-oriented company. A brief narrative outlines a corporate wide data gathering system, its hardware and application. Responsibility areas for corporate accounting, operations control, engineering, and research program development are defined. A Synopsis of programs within responsibility areas is presented along with a review of program language requirements for each of these areas. Anticipated additional uses of computers and the programs being developed for these uses are outlined. The scope and growth of an Information Systems Department within Duval Corporation is briefly discussed. Suggestions are presented which should help minimize the problems and avoid some of the pitfalls of program development for those contemplating the initiation or revision of an electronic data processing system. The importance of lucid and comprehensive program documentation is stressed.

Jan 1, 1969

By F. H. Allen, R. P. Roe

The performance history of a volumetric gas condensate reservoir is presented. Curves depict the pressure-production relation and illustrate the phace behavior of the reservoir fluid. This performance is compared to calculated performance. This Bacon Lime Reservoir was discovered in 1941 and has been produced to field separators and gas sales. Reservoir performance has been observed by periodic bottom hole pressure sur. veys and companion sample analysis of well effluents, in addition to gas and condensate production data. , The pressure-production history demonstrates that the reservoir has produced under volumetric control. The "retrograde" behavior of the reservoir fluid is illustrated by decreasing butanes-plus content of the well effluent, followed by revaporization as the reservoir pressure approaches abandonment. Calculated performance predictions are compared to actual performance and some discussion offered on apparent discrepancies. INTRODUCTION Since the late 1930's, many gas condensate reservoirs have been developed, the retrograde theory of phase behavior has been generally accepted, and a number of cycling programs have been initiated. Numerous technical papers have since appeared in the literature dealing with the theory and application of cycling the gas condensate reservoirs. Some cycling operations have now advanced to a stage where it is possible to determine performance characteristics to a fair degree of accuracy. Field performance data for gas condensate reservoirs operated by pressure depletion have not been so extensively reported in the literature, although their probable behavior has been discussed in explanation of the retrograde theory. It is the purpose of this paper to compare calculated theoretical reservoir performance with field observations and well stream analyze; which have been obtained throughout the practical producing life of a small volumetric gas condensate reservoir. The reservoir under study is the Bacon Lime Zone of a field located in East Texas. The Bacon Lime occurs in the Lower Glen Rose Formation of Cretaceous Age. This Bacon Lime Reservoir is encountered at an average depth of 7600 ft (7203 ft subsea elevation) and comprises approximately 3100 acres located on a structural high with 80 ft of productive closure. The producing formation consists of approximately 50 ft of dense crystalline fossiliferous dolomite of generally low permeability with typical wide variation in both permeability and porosity, the more permeable stringers measuring 30 to 40 millidarcys. The average porosity is extimated to be 10 per cent with a connate water saturation of approximately 30 per cent of the pore space. The reservoir temperature was found to be 220°F and the original pressure was 3691 psia at -7200 ft elevation. The re ervoir was discovered in November, 1.941, and is now essentially depleted, Throughout most of its productive life, from the standpoint of cumulative withdrawals, the reservoir has been produced by five wells. During its latter stages of depletion, 16 wells were completed in the Bacon Lime.

Jan 1, 1950

By P. G. Mason

The upswing in the price of gold in 1979 prompted renewed interest in the Mercur gold property by Getty Oil Company, owner and operator, and Gold Standard Inc. of Salt Lake City, Utah, currently retaining a 15% net profits interest. Extensive geological exploration work resumed to delineate the ore reserves, and metallurgical test work was initiated under the direction of A.H. Ross & Associates. This led to the development of an aqueous pressure oxidation process suitable for treatment of the refractory ores. Subsequent geostatistical studies revealed that the distribution of high refractory ore was less than previously estimated, and thus a higher return on investment could be realized if a direct carbon-in-leach process were used despite a sacrifice in overall recovery. This paper reviews the geological and metallurgical studies that led to this final process selection.

Jan 1, 1984

By W. P. Haseman

The well method of producing oil and gas is universally used in the development and operation of oil and gas properties. It consists essentially in the spacing of a number of wells on a given tract, and in drilling and operating them in accordance with established practices. The method is based on a fundamental energy principle. This principle governs the state and the change of state of fluids or fluid mixtures confined under pressure within a porous and permeable reservoir in such a way as to direct a flow from the reservoir into and out of a drilled well with a reduction of potential energy. The application of the well method of producing oil has given data which prove that the total yield of oil from a reservoir through wells is, in general, only a small fractional part of the total oil that is contained in the reservoir. It is generally recognized that a spacing of one well to each 160-acre tract of any good oil pool is too wide. However, one well to this 160-acre tract will yield a large quantity of oil and in time will dissipate most, if not all, of the potential energy that was originally stored and retained in the fluids by pressure. Two wells spaced and drilled on this 160-acre tract would yield approximately twice the quantity of oil, while four wells would yield approximately four times the oil. A well spacing is soon reached, with the addition of wells to this 160-acre tract, in which the drainage interference of offset wells will materially affect the yield of oil per well. The increased yield of oil, therefore, is not directly proportional to the added number of wells but the increased costs of development are directly proportional to the added number of wells. It is evident that while an added number of wells to this 160-acre tract yields an increased quantity of oil, there is an economic limit to the number of wells to be added. The yield of oil and the costs of development and operation are of such a nature, and are so related, that

Jan 1, 1930

By B. J. Klee

What is the economic basis for direct, continuous particle size measurement and control? First, precise grinding control is necessary to achieve and maintain a specified recovery and throughput. Second, throughput and recovery are direct functions of particle size-and these two factors control the economic performance of the ore concentration process. Third, only size-based control using a particle size and percent solids monitor (PSM) has achieved the necessary precise control. Recovery, throughput and cost can be accurately measured for various concentrator operating conditions if particle size is closely controlled. From such data the economic results of different particle size grind points can be analyzed. This will reveal the best combination of recovery and throughput to meet objectives established by financial management. Predictable, repeatable response to set-point selection is essential if the projected profitability of the mill is to be reached.

Jan 11, 1976

By E. V. Foran

Among the many newer disclosures that have accompanied the petroleum industry's progressively deeper exploratory drilling is the increased frequency with which the operators are encountering reservoirs of which the products at the time of discovery exist wholly or predominantly in the gas phase. The popular term "distillate pool" is most often used within the industry when referring to this type of reservoir, and in this paper the term is used in that sense. These pools have been observed in many different surroundings. In some places the entire reservoir is filled with the wet gas containing its water-white condensible products in the gas phase but apparently with no dark oil or other hydrocarbon liquids in the reservoir. The 8200-ft. horizon in the Big Lake field in West Texas is a good example of this type. At other places the wet, or distillate-bearing, gas may form a large gas cap directly overlying and in contact with an extensive reserve of dark oil. Oklahoma City, Kettleman Hills, the 8500-ft. horizon in the Big Lake field, and many others are examples of this type. There are also many places in which the wet distillate-bearing gas fills nearly the entire reservoir space, while the dark oil occupies only a narrow, bandlike zone, which marks the boundary of the reservoir along its lowest productive contour. The heavier components of these deep pool gases are generally water white in color, a large portion of which are condensible in a conventional oil and gas separator, when operated under pressures of the order of 400 to 800 Ib. per sq. in. Although the water-white products recovered in the separator sometimes have end points of 650" F. and higher on standard Engler distillation, they occur only in the gas phase in the reservoir. It is entirely possible that even some small amounts of dark colored reservoir components may occur in the gas phase when the temperature is 300" F. and pressures exceed 6000 Ib. per sq. in. Close approaches to these conditions have been encountered in the deepest producing wells. The condensible content of the deep reservoir gases of the many pools that have been tested or produced to date shows a wide variation in both condensible content, per 1000 cu. ft. of gas, and physical character.

Jan 1, 1939

By E. V. Foran

Among the many newer disclosures that have accompanied the petroleum industry's progressively deeper exploratory drilling is the increased frequency with which the operators are encountering reservoirs of which the products at the time of discovery exist wholly or predominantly in the gas phase. The popular term "distillate pool" is most often used within the industry when referring to this type of reservoir, and in this paper the term is used in that sense. These pools have been observed in many different surroundings. In some places the entire reservoir is filled with the wet gas containing its water-white condensible products in the gas phase but apparently with no dark oil or other hydrocarbon liquids in the reservoir. The 8200-ft. horizon in the Big Lake field in West Texas is a good example of this type. At other places the wet, or distillate-bearing, gas may form a large gas cap directly overlying and in contact with an extensive reserve of dark oil. Oklahoma City, Kettleman Hills, the 8500-ft. horizon in the Big Lake field, and many others are examples of this type. There are also many places in which the wet distillate-bearing gas fills nearly the entire reservoir space, while the dark oil occupies only a narrow, bandlike zone, which marks the boundary of the reservoir along its lowest productive contour. The heavier components of these deep pool gases are generally water white in color, a large portion of which are condensible in a conventional oil and gas separator, when operated under pressures of the order of 400 to 800 Ib. per sq. in. Although the water-white products recovered in the separator sometimes have end points of 650" F. and higher on standard Engler distillation, they occur only in the gas phase in the reservoir. It is entirely possible that even some small amounts of dark colored reservoir components may occur in the gas phase when the temperature is 300" F. and pressures exceed 6000 Ib. per sq. in. Close approaches to these conditions have been encountered in the deepest producing wells. The condensible content of the deep reservoir gases of the many pools that have been tested or produced to date shows a wide variation in both condensible content, per 1000 cu. ft. of gas, and physical character.

Jan 1, 1939

By C. L. Meyers, J. L. Lytton, T. E. Tietz

The recovery of tensile flow stress of 99.995-pct Al and Al-1 pct Mg alloy was investigated using a fractional recovery parameter. Tensile strainirg was conducted at room temperature, and recovery treatments were made in the range from 80° to 200°C. Equal values of fractional flow stress recovery were found to result in equivalent structural states. Identical recovery treatments were found to produce constant values of fractional flow stress re covery, independent of prestrain. The activation energy for recovery of the 99.995-pct A1 between 80" and 200°C was found to be 23,000 +2000 cal per mole, and the activation energy for the Al-1 pct Mg alloy was 27,500 cal per mole. 1 HE degree of recovery of a cold-worked metal may be studied by measuring the changes which take place in any of a number of properties. Some of the properties which have been used by past investigators include X-ray diffraction phenomena, electrical resistivity, hardness, creep strength, elastic limit, and flow stress. Despite the apparent preponderance of such studies, little is known concerning the effect of recovery on the strength of metals except as deduced from changes in various types of hardness measurements. Furthermore, little information is avail- able concerning the effects which specific solute atoms have on the recovery process. Limited studies have indicated that in some cases solid-solution additions greatly decrease the rate of recovery,' whereas in at least the case of magnesium additions to alluminum an increase in the rate has been reported.2 The purpose of this investigation was to determine the effect of a 1 pct Mg addition on the recovery of high-purity aluminum. Because of the particular interest in the effect of solute additions on the recovery behavior as related to mechanical properties, the degree of recovery was evaluated in terms of tensile flow stress. For the purposes of this study, a recovery process shall be defined as any process, short of recrystallization, whereby the properties, of work-hardened metals tend toward their values ill the unstrained state. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE Test Materials. The materials used in this study were a 99.995-3 A1 and an Al-1 pct Mg alloy made from high-purity base metal. The high-purity aluminum contained the following wt pct impurities: 0.001 pct Cu, 0.002 pct Fe, 0.001 pct Si, and 0.0004 pct Mg. The Pil-1 pct Mg alloy contained 0.001 pct Cu, 0.002 pct Fe, 0.003 pct Si, and 0.99 pct Mg. Both materials were obtained in the form of as-rolled 0.125-in.-thick sheets, from the Alcoa Research Laboratories, New Kensington, Penn. Tensile specimens were cut from these sheets with the longitudinal axis in the rolling direction. Both materials were recrystallized in a molten salt bath; the high-purity aluminum at 450° C for 20 min and

Jan 1, 1962

By Alfred Weiss

The business world of tomorrow will experience a major change in its data communication systems, with the mineral industry being among those to feel the greatest impact of this change. This development can be expected to occur over the next two decades at a steadily increasing tempo. One major factor prompting this transformation is the fact that technological knowledge is doubling approximately every five years. Moreover, industry is becoming more and more dependent upon the flow and processing of information in its long-range planning, while government requirements and regulations demand increasingly detailed and precise information on plant operations.

Jan 1, 1971

By C. C. Nathan

Data are resented on the physical properties of five waxes obtained from fields in Texas and Louisiana in which "parafin" troubles are being experienced. The crude parafin was fractionated into three components, voluble in cold acetone, soluble in boiling acetone, and insoluble in boiling acetone. The acetone insoluble fraction was found to consist essentially of straight chain parafin hydrocarbons in the molecular weight range 525 to 700. Solubilities of the purified high molecular weight parafins were determined in a number of solvents. It was found that in hydrocarbon solvents, including crude oil, solubilities could be calculated satisfactorily by use of ideal solubility relations. In chlorinated, and oxygenated solvents, large deviations from ideal behavior were observed. These deviations could be partially correlated with the internal pressure of the solvent. INTRODUCTION A problem encountered in many producing oil fields is that of "paraffin" deposition. The problem refers to the deposition of material from the crude oil onto tubing, pumping rods, flow lines, or other material contacted by the crude. This problem has been recognized for nearly a hundred years, and numerous investigations have been reported on its causes and prevention or alleviation. One of the more comprehensive of such investigations was published by Reistle1 in 1932. A few of the salient findings of his report are briefly as follows: The term "paraffin" as used to describe this problem refers to the deposit of carbonaceous material which is not soluble or dispersible by the crude oil under the conditions where deposition occurs. The "paraffin" normally consists of high molecular weight paraffin hydrocarbons, both straight chain and branched, resins and asphaltic materials of undetermined nature, occluded oil and water, and possibly sand. In consistency, the deposit may vary from a soft, sticky material, to one which is hard and brittle. Deposits are usually black, although lighter colors are sometimes observed. Under the conditions of temperature, pressure, and crude oil composition occurring in the underground reservoir, the paraffin is in suspension or solution in the crude. As the oil flows to the surface, there is generally a reduction of temperature, pressure, and the amount of dissolved gases contained in the oil. Reduction of temperature and gas break-out were shown by Reistle to be factors causing reduced solubility of the paraffin in the crude. Thus, as the crude containing paraffin rises to the surface and flows to storage tanks at atmospheric temperature, the solubility of the paraffin may be exceeded. Deposition will begin at the point in the system where the temperature of the system falls below its cloud point, and continue as long as there is a further drop in the solution power of the crude for the paraffin. The severity of the deposition as well as the location of the bulk of the deposition, i.e., in subsurface or surface equipment, will depend on the amount of paraffin originally in the crude, the manner in which pressure and temperature of the crude

Jan 1, 1956

By James Howard

ON Aug. 25, 1911, a rail failed on the Lehigh Valley Railroad, causing a disastrous wreck. The surface of the fracture was in a plane at right angles to the length of the rail. There was a dark-colored, oval spot on this surface, located on the gage side of the head, representing the part of the rail which was the first to fracture. The nucleus of this spot showed that the fracture had an interior origin. Other fractures of this kind, the peripheries of which had not reached the surface of-the rail, presented surfaces having a silvery luster. The darkened surface of the present fracture was caused, doubtless, by the air having had access to it. This fracture was recognized as a fatigue fracture, of a modified type, its interior origin having been due to a component in the rail which is not usually present in cases of fatigue fractures. The metal next the running surface of the head of the rail was in a state of internal compression, this being the component not commonly met with in other cases, and which caused the fracture to have its interior origin. For the purpose of giving this modified type of fatigue fracture a specific name, for identification, the term "transverse fissure" was applied. No mystery was thought to attach to its formation, or to its development. The explanation of its occurrence was obvious in the light of common knowledge upon the behavior of steel under repeated alternate stresses. By reason of the state of internal compression at the running surface, the maximum tensile stresses in the head, under bending loads, were along an interior element. Here the tensile strains were higher than in the fibers more remote from .the neutral axis. Under such conditions the fracture of the rail would be expected to have an' interior origin. A discussion of the subject of transverse fissures essentially becomes a discussion of fatigue fractures, since they are identical. The descriptive term employed, merely for the identification of this type of fatigue fracture, had the appearance of creating alarm. Apprehensions arose that a new phenomenon in the physical properties of steel had presented itself, the explanation of which was sought in every

Jan 11, 1917

THE compiler, or author, of the Probierbücblein is not known, and the date of its first printing is uncertain. It was obviously not written by an assayer who wished to give a coherent description of his craft for the instruction of others; this was left for Biringuccio first to do. It is easy to believe that originally the Probierbücblein was a random collection from various sources of information useful to an assayer, probably gathered by one of the profession for his own use. It must remain a matter of speculation whether this was shown to a printer, who recognized the opportunity to turn an honest penny and made an inept attempt to give the manuscript the appearance of a coherent account by writing a preface and arranging the various items in somewhat logical sequence, or whether the assayer him- self started this job and was prevented from finishing it. That some sections of the book, especially near the be ginning, present an almost continuous story, while others are chaotic in their arrangement; that several paragraphs are printed more than once in different places; that there are paragraph headings, for which the text was never written, or lost, followed by irrelevant information-all this seems evidence of a job unfinished and points to a publisher's offering for the public's quick money. The demand must have been brisk, for metal working was a profitable profession, and the jeweler who was working with metals but did not care to become completely trained in assay methods would jump at the chance of acquiring easy knowledge. Even the great Agricola has whole sections obviously plagiarized from the Probierbücblein. Neither Biringuccio nor Ercker shows any direct influence, though they and all subsequent metallurgists will in some degree be affected by

Jan 1, 1949

By J. P. Dovel

Having been requested to prepare a paper referring especially to my patents as applied to blast furnaces, I shall confine my discussion to those improvements and inventions pertaining directly to the blast furnace itself, omitting a number of patents pertaining to blast furnace operations. I spent the early part of my life in the construction of blast furnaces, from rivet-heating to drafting and designing, much of the work relating to repairs and rebuilding. Later, as I became more interested in maintenance and operation of a group of blast furnaces, one fact especially made a lasting impression on me; namely, that a very expensive piece of equipment was very short lived, and the expense of replacement, relining, etc., in many instances consumed most of the profits made while in actual operation. As far back as 1910, I began to lay plans to build with a view to permanency and not merely for a blast, the common expression at that time, which really meant only one or two years in southern practice. Since we did not then blow so hard most failures occurred in the bosh and hearth. The failure of either generally meant a complete new lining, as the inwall did not look good enough to last another blast. At that time we were using two types of hearth, one of heavy steel plate protected by well and sprays on the outside, and one of heavy cast iron, made in sections and bound together with wrought-iron bands. The former type proved dangerous, for if the iron should come through, as it frequently did, it would cut away the steel plate, quickly turning large quantities of molten iron into the water, causing a severe explosion and costly repairs. The cast-iron type gave trouble also by the iron finding its way through the joints between the sections, which was not so serious, since the iron would not cut a way the heavy cast-iron sections very quickly, and generally caused only small damage, and repairs were easily made. Both types have been improved; the former by the introduction of cast-iron water-cooled plates, placed on the inside of the steel jacket. This has proved to be very good construction, but has no real claim to permanency. As the cast-iron plates cannot be replaced from the outside, the operator must assume that some time, at no late date, he must replace them from the inside, which will mean a blowing out of the furnace. The heavy cast-iron hearth has been improved by making the

By D. K. Grubbs, A. B. Moose

A brief overview of domestic sources of anorthosite in Oklahoma and Wyoming is presented, including drilling data on anorthosite and limestone exploration.

Jan 1, 1982

By Kenneth Cottingham

The number of wells drilled in Ohio in 1943 was slightly in excess of the number drilled in 1942. Compared with the average annual completions for the five years preceding, the year 1943 was short 11 per cent, hut the average initial volume of gas wells was considerably improved. In 1942 the average initial open flow per gas well was 668 M cu. ft., whereas in 1943 the average was 913 M cu. ft. Although no large gas-producing areas were discovered during the year under review, some 30 small pools were found in 17 of the counties of eastern Ohio. These new pools averaged about 300 acres each, and most of them were not extensions but were separate pools adjacent to older production. The Clinton sand furnished most of these discoveries, although six were from the Berea, one was Newburg, and three were shallow sands. No discoveries were made outside former producing counties, and there was no new development the Trenton area of western Ohio. The number of oil wells decreased from 181 drilled in 1942, to 170 in the year 1943. The production of Pennsylvania-grade oil increased 7644 bbl. The total Corning production, however, decreased 91,325 bbl. The present price of Corning-grade oil, $1.31 per bbl., is too low, in the opinion of the operator, to justify exploration. Until something is done in correcting the price level of Corning grade, the production probably will continue to decline. The oil industry in Ohio is making a concentrated effort toward increased production and improved methods of recovering Pennsylvania-grade oil, and a.s this report is written a research and engineering program is being formulated for the benefit and information of the various producers of that grade in Ohio.

Jan 1, 1944

By Kenneth Cottingham

The number of wells drilled in Ohio in 1943 was slightly in excess of the number drilled in 1942. Compared with the average annual completions for the five years preceding, the year 1943 was short 11 per cent, hut the average initial volume of gas wells was considerably improved. In 1942 the average initial open flow per gas well was 668 M cu. ft., whereas in 1943 the average was 913 M cu. ft. Although no large gas-producing areas were discovered during the year under review, some 30 small pools were found in 17 of the counties of eastern Ohio. These new pools averaged about 300 acres each, and most of them were not extensions but were separate pools adjacent to older production. The Clinton sand furnished most of these discoveries, although six were from the Berea, one was Newburg, and three were shallow sands. No discoveries were made outside former producing counties, and there was no new development the Trenton area of western Ohio. The number of oil wells decreased from 181 drilled in 1942, to 170 in the year 1943. The production of Pennsylvania-grade oil increased 7644 bbl. The total Corning production, however, decreased 91,325 bbl. The present price of Corning-grade oil, $1.31 per bbl., is too low, in the opinion of the operator, to justify exploration. Until something is done in correcting the price level of Corning grade, the production probably will continue to decline. The oil industry in Ohio is making a concentrated effort toward increased production and improved methods of recovering Pennsylvania-grade oil, and a.s this report is written a research and engineering program is being formulated for the benefit and information of the various producers of that grade in Ohio.

Jan 1, 1944

By Charles Albert Ashburner

Natural gas has been known to exist for many years in the St. Lawrence Valley, between Quebec and Montreal, and more partirularly in the vicinity of Louisville and Three Rivers, 74 and 94 miles respectively northeast of Montreal, and 98 and 78 miles respectively southwest of Quebec; the distance from Montreal to Quebec along the St. Lawreuce River being about 175 miles. It was not until 1880 that any practical explorations were begun with the hope of finding gas in sufficient quantities for commercial uses. In this year Messrs. Piret and Genest, of Three Rivers, sank a well near St. Maurice to a depth of 50 feet, where solid rock was encountered. A similar well was drilled through the glacial and allavial drift, in the same district, in 1883, by the Messrs. Renaud Freres and Dubois, to a depth of 70 feet before solid rock was encountered. In this latter well a strong flow of gas was obtained. The gas was an outflow from a very limited reservoir in the porous glacial gravel, which had been filled from the gas resulting from the decomposition of vegetable remains, which had been buried in the gravel at the time of its deposition. Subsequently, other wells were sunk in the same way, with the hope of getting gas in commercial quantities from similar reservoirs. Commercial Gas.—By gas in commercial quantities I mean gas in such quantity that, if utilized with proper care and economy, it would generate steam at a cost below the cost at which the same duty could be obtained from the use of coal or wood at current prices, and that

Jan 1, 1890