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By W. G. Davenport

Inco flash smelting blows industrial oxygen, dried Cu"Fe-S concentrate, Si02 flux and recycle materials horizontally into a hot (-1500 K) furnace. Once in the furnace, the oxygen reacts with the concentrate by Reactions 1.1, 1.2 and 1.3 to give: (a) liquid matte, 55 to 60 mass%Cu (b) liquid slag, 1 to 2 mass% Cu (c) off gas, 60 to 75 volume % S02. The matte is tapped into ladles and sent to converting, Fig. 1.3. The slag is tapped into ladles, and sent to a stockpile; with or without a Cu-from-slagremoval step. The off gas is water-quenched, cleaned of dust and sent to a sulfudc acid plant. The [nco flash furnace is also used to recover Cu from molten recycle converter slag. The slag is poured' into the furnace via a steel chute and water-cooled door, Fig. 3.1. In 2000 there are five Inco flash furnaces in operation: at Almalyk, Uzbekistan (Ushakov, et at. 1975); Hayden, Arizona (Marczeski and Aldrich 1986); Hudey. New Mexico (Belew and Partelpoeg, 1993); and Sudbury, Ontario (two furnaces, Carr etal, 1997, Humphris et ai, 1997; Molino et ai, 1997). The Almalyk, Hayden and Hurley furnaces smelt Cu-Fe-S concentrates. The Sudbury furnaces smelt Ni-Cu-Co~Fe-S concentrates'to produce -45% Ni+Cu+Co matte and -1% Ni+Cu+Co slag.

Jan 1, 2001

By Jay Smerekanicz, Florin: Pedersen Gheorghiu, Alan Cameron

In order to expand the capacity of Modern Landtill, a groundwater extraction system consisting of a linear system of pumping wells over 2,700 feet long had to be replaced. The new system would be covered by landtill cells to a depth of approximately 400 feet, and therefore would have to be maintenance free. In addition, the new system had to be proven to be more effective than the previous system, groundwater extraction had to be maintained during construction and construction could not disturb either the landfill operation or nearby residential neighbors.

Jan 1, 2001

By Bradshaw, Y. S. Cho

The size of bubbles plays an important role in flotation. Equations used to calculate the size of bubbles all show the effect of liquid/gas surface tension. However, the surface tension does not change much with frother concentration and experiments conducted using single capillaries (or single-hole spargers) do not reveal any clear effect of the frother concentration on bubble size. The size of bubbles does, however, strongly depend on frother concentration when multi-hole spargers are utilized (or when measured in a flotation cell); at low frother concentrations the bubble size is much larger indicating coalescence as a main mechanism determining the size. Coalescence can be prevented at frother concentrations exceeding the critical coalescence concentration (CCC), which in turn was found to be interrelated with the dynamic foamibility index (DFI).

Jan 1, 2001

By Zhijing Zhang

A thermodynamic structure model for alkali borate melts is developed to describe the distribution of structural groups in the alkali borate melts as a function of compositions. Fractions of threefold coordinated boron atoms and fourfold coordinated boron atoms in the potassium borate melt are calculated for the entire composition range and compared with results reported in the literature. The model has been used for structural interpretation for the borate anomaly in viscosity, which regards the borate anomaly as a manifestation of the various antithetical effects caused by the introduction of alkali oxide into boric oxide. It has been found that the viscosities of alkali borate melts increase or decrease according to the changes in rigidity and spatial connectivity of the glass network structure, which is a function of temperature and composition.

Jan 1, 2001

By J. B. Hadaway

The current limit to power transmission for grinding mills through one mill pinion is approximately 7,500kW. Above this power rating either twin pinion arrangements or Gearless drives are required. The SMTP concept was developed to overcome this limitation by using two pinions with a single large drive motor. The SMTP mill drive offers major advantages in capital cost and greatly simplifies plant layouts, while using an innovative adaptation of industry-proven single helical gearing. Through the use of a single motor, provision of variable speed drive is greatly simplified. The SMTP can also be used for significant power upgrades on existing mills.

Jan 1, 2001

By S. Moussa

The formation of boron-doped nickel aluminides Ni3AI, (76 at. % Ni) from elemental powders by reaction synthesis using reactive sintering was studied. The process involves the mixing of elemental powders of nickel and aluminium with various wt % of boron up to 1 wt % boron. Nickel and Aluminium powders were mixed in the correct proportion to form the intended boron-doped nickel aluminide intermetallic. XRD, SEMI EDS, Image analysis and Archimedes principle; were used to study the effect of Boron addition on the final microstructure, bulk density, average grain size of as reactively-sintered nickel aluminides (boron-doped), compared with no boron addition. The results showed that at greater boron content than 0.3 wt %, a two-phase non-equilibrium microstructure of consisting of NiAI phase in NiJAI matrix was formed that have been primarily retained even after heat treatment for 5 hours at 1000 °C. Boron was present in solid-solution within both the NiAI and the Ni3AI (in greater amounts) phases.

Jan 1, 2001

By Rundqvist

The best method to minimise disturbances from traffic to the neighbourhood and in Urban is probably to go underground. For obvious reasons this will cause vibrations, noise and other environmental effects which need very strict regulations and quality assurance in order to complete the work successfully. One project is “Southern Link”, a part of a ring road system. The system of tunnels includes 16 kilometres of tunnels right beneath the south part of the city of Stockholm. At least 20.000 people will be or could be affected by different kinds of disturbances and pollution such as vibrations, noise, gas and groundwater. Another project is the “Arlanda Link”. A new railway with three stations has been built under the existing and running to Arlanda airport with its terminals. Authorities have carefully judged these projects, which cause complaints from neighbours due to disturbances. The blasting operations are professionally managed by the contractors and controlled by consultants to keep the regulations according to the Swedish standards, which are well described in the tender documents by risk analysis and technical descriptions. In spite of that, one conclusion is that it is not always possible to go underground without exceeding stipulated regulations with existing technique. Some of the regulations also double the cost of excavation

Jan 1, 2001

By Robert E. Blackett

To help local governments plan for long-term supplies of sand and gravel for buildings and infrastructure, the Utah Geological Survey is assessing natural aggregate resources (mainly sand and gravel) in the St. George, Utah area. Whereas much of the aggregate in the study area is adequate for road-base construction, high-quality aggregate for Port- land cement concrete is limited due to geology, and also due to land administration and environmental issues. Virgin River alluvial gravels southwest of St. George are generally poor sources of aggregate because they contain clasts of soft sediments and soluble minerals derived from Mesozoic rocks. Elsewhere, widespread secondary calcium carbonate (caliche), as rinds and matrix in gravel, lower the quality of material. Young river-terrace deposits in Fort Pearce Wash, and along the Virgin River above St. George are the primary sources of sand and gravel for the area. Alluvial fans on the east side of the Beaver Dam Mountains, and on the west side of the Hurricane Cliffs are also sources of aggregate. Stream-channel deposits associated with "inverted valleys" north of the towns of St. George and Hurricane, Utah, and older pediment gravels on the west flank of the Beaver Dam Mountains may be future sources of high-quality aggregate. Accelerated urban development during the 1980s and early 1990s has caused St. George and other communities in Washington County to encroach upon sand and gravel pits originally located in rural, undeveloped areas. Urban residents often view nearby sand and gravel operations as undesirable neighbors and pressure elected officials to close the pits. Pit closures effectively eliminate the remaining reserve from the sand and gravel resource base of the area. More- over, resources may also be lost as new homes are built upon undeveloped sand and gravel deposits. The St. George area is particularly susceptible to loss of aggregate resources because high-quality natural aggregate for construction is already in short supply. Moreover, most of the land in the study area is administered by the U.S. Bureau of Land Management and subject to various land-use restrictions. Much of this public land cannot be developed for mineral materials, such as sand and gravel, because of federal regulations protecting rare plants and animals, archaeological sites, and important watershed areas. Of particular concern to resource development are areas designated as Areas of Critical Environmental Concern, Wilderness Areas, and Wilderness Study Areas. Protection for Endangered Species is a critical element in all planning efforts. Those species present in the St. George area or in areas near- by include: the desert tortoise, southwestern willow flycatcher, Virgin River chub, and dwarf bearclaw poppy. As the St. George area is depleted and/or deprived of sand and gravel resources through extraction and urbanization respectively, construction costs will rise unless conservation measures are instituted. To avoid the loss of aggregate resources, the UGS is pursuing a program of data gathering and field surveying of surficial deposits to determine tonnage and quality of the remaining sand and gravel resources. The resource information from this program will help land planners, developers, and government officials make informed decisions concerning urban development throughout the region.

Jan 1, 2001

By Y. Wang, E. Forssberg, A. Johansson, B. Chan

A super-conducting high gradient magnetic separator with matrix vibration in dry separation mode is a powder purification device, which has been used to remove weakly magnetic impure particles from fine calcite powders below 53 µm in this study. A fundamental question concerned is the evolution of the matrix clogging under gas-solids loads. This paper presents the improvement of the separation selectivity using a method of mechanically based vibration on the matrix in the separator. The functions of the matrix vibration are discussed. The results indicated that the mechanically based vibration on the matrix within a high intensity magnetic field while a feed was introduced in an air stream, was found to be effective for the dry purification of fine powder materials.

Jan 1, 2001

By N. Wang, A. I. A. Salama

"An index to evaluate the amenability for processing of different coals is implemented. The index is based on the well-known Mayer-curve or M-curve. The index is superior to other existing indices and is implemented using Microsoft-Excel™. Several coals are used to demonstrate the implementation of the index proposed.IntroductionIn 1950, Mayer introduced a curve that carries the information embedded in the fir s t three curves or ash curves of the conventional washability tables and curves (Peng et al., 1979; Osborne, 1988). The curve was labeled the Mcurve (abbreviation for Mittlewertkurve in German or the Mayer- curve). The main idea behind the curve is to use the ordinate for the cumulative mass and the abscissa for the ash (attribute) mass. Specific slopes on the resulting curve represent the cumulative float, cumulative sink, and elementary ash (attribute) contents (Mayer, 1950, 1953, 1957; Venkatesan, 1975; Osborne, 1988; Salama, 1989). Beyond the ash values, the curve carries graphical information that can be used in evaluating coal processing characteristics. Consequently, it becomes possible to present several raw coals on a single diagram, thus making it easier to compare their processing characteristics. This is particularly useful in comparing various size ranges of raw coal or the same size range from different seams. Therefore, the M-curve is adopted as a vehicle for developing the “processing (washing) characteristics index” implemented in this paper."

Jan 1, 2001

By Deming Wang, R. A. Overfelt

"The oscillating cup viscometer has become a dominant technique to measure the viscosities of high temperature molten metals. Unfortunately, the viscosity estimation model from the observed logarithmic decrement and period of the oscillation is very complicated. There are still large discrepancies of viscosity estimation values between using different measurement facilities and using different viscosity estimation models for a same molten metal. The purpose of the paper is to evaluate the accuracy of an oscillating cup viscometer in Auburn University. Two well known viscosity estimation models, Roscoe's and Torklep's equations, are compared and discussed. The theoretical literature for the fluid flow inside an oscillating cup is reviewed and a more accurate working equation for the Auburn oscillating cup viscometer is developed. Some design parameters of the oscillating cup viscometer, which directly affect the accuracy of viscosity estimation by using the working equation, are discussed. In addition, applications and experimental measuring data are presented in the paper for several different commercial alloys, such as aluminum alloys: A319, A356 and A201, nickel-base super alloys: In713 and In718, and casting irons, C40 Gray Iron and Ductile Iron.1 IntroductionThe oscillating cup viscometer is the most important and has been most frequently used in viscosity measurement for high temperature liquids [1-4]. The principal advantages of this technique over others are its mechanical simplicity and the ability to measure the time period and amplitude decay with great precision. In the viscometer, a high temperature liquid (such as a molten metal) is contained within a crucible suspended by a wire to form a torsional pendulum, which induces torsional oscillation motion. This motion is damped primarily by viscous dissipation within the viscous liquid inside the cup. The viscosity of the liquid can be calculated by an analytical or numerical solution ofthe equations of motion of the oscillating cup system."

Jan 1, 2001

By Julian Malnic

Various natural, commercial, engineering and operational factors govern the evolution of approaches taken in the exploration for Seafloor Massive Sulphides (SMS) and in delineating the resource. These stages are prerequisites to the proposed mining of SMS deposits. This paper presents and analyses these factors from the view of an SMS exploration company that is pioneering the exploration of this rich alternative source of zinc, copper and gold. Current exploration practices developed by Marine Scientific Research (MSR) workers for SMS deposits are expected to give way to industry-generated methods as the SMS exploration industry gathers momentum. The exploration process falls into three phases that are described below: Prospecting (locating targets), Indicating Resources, and Measuring Mineral Resources Considerable streamlining of the SMS exploration process will accelerate the rate of discovery. The economics of SMS mining are projected to be superior to comparable terrestrial mining operations in both operating cash cost and capital terms.

Jan 1, 2001

By P J. McCarthy

Globalisation and consolidation is resulting in the mining industry coming to be dominated by a small number of very large companies seeking to lever assets and knowledge to create wealth. As an important service provider to the mining industry, the minerals tertiary education sector needs to understand these global drivers and respond to them. However, it is under-resourced and its sustainability is under challenge in all Western countries. Through the establishment and funding of the Minerals Tertiary Education Council (MTEC), the Minerals Council of Australia (MCA) has provided a unique opportunity to build a national, world-class minerals tertiary education environment in Australia that can be sustained in the long-term. This paper reviews how the global changes occurring in the mining industry provide the model for what needs to occur in the minerals education sector and how MTEC is the logical vehicle to facilitate these changes. It concludes by suggesting that the time has come to integrate the minerals tertiary education providers into one business. Furthermore, the vision should be for a global mining education academy based around a virtual university capable of servicing the cultural diversity and continuing education needs of the global minerals industry.

Jan 1, 2001

By G. A. Johnson

Basic management principles will be discussed (as they apply to minerals education efforts), especially in light of the changing nature of volunteerism in today’s society. Also, the “minerals education tree” will be presented, along with public opinion / public policy realities.

Jan 1, 2001

By J. H. Schuenemeyer

Uncertainty estimates on coal resources were computed as part of the U.S. Geological Survey’s National Coal Resource Assessment study of more than 60 coal beds and zones in the Appalachian Basin, the Colorado Plateau, the Gulf Coast, the Illinois Basin, and the Northern Rocky Mountains and Great Plains. The estimates were made to provide zone specific measures of uncertainty on the historical categories of geological assurance, namely measured, indicated, inferred and hypothetical. Previous estimates were based solely upon distance from a drill hole. These new estimates incorporate site-specific variability and spatial correlation and indicate that there is considerable difference in variability within and between regions. Uncertainty estimates for the measured category are discussed in this paper.

Jan 1, 2001

By Jean-Christophe Gebelin, Mark Jolly, Samantha Jones

"The de-waxing process in investment casting is truly a black art which is carried out in a black hole - the autoclave. The process involves exposing wax, coated by a porous ceramic shell, to steam at a pressure of 10 bar and a temperature of about 180°C. The processes which then occur are truly multi-media and multi-physics. Steam condenses in the porous ceramic, wax melts and flows, the shells expand and sometimes crack. Why the shells crack is one of the most difficult questions asked in the industry.Modelling and validating the de-waxing process is not simple. The IRC at the University of Birmingham is attempting to model this process using Physica+ a code developed in the UK. This paper will present the latest results in this attempt to model one of the casting industries most intractable problems.IntroductionThe de-waxing process using an autoclave involves the following physical phenomena:· Flow of the steam in the autoclave;· Heat transfer from the steam to the wax, possibly through the shell;· Melting and flow of the wax.At the same time, other phenomena may occur, such as the flow of the steam through the shell, the condensation of the steam on the shell surface and on the wax pattern surface, the flow of wax the through the shell, etc ...This shows how complex the de-waxing process is from a physical point of view. The main defect that appears during this process is the cracking of the shell. Previous modelling work carried out by Snow [1] has shown that it is possible to predict the stress in the shell, making numerous assumptions. In this paper, the modelling to predict the state of stress in the shell that is currently in development at the University of Birmingham is presented together with the presentation ofthe physical phenomena to model and the assumptions used. The parameters that are needed in such models will also be discussed, and some experimental work undertaken at the moment presented."

Jan 1, 2001

By Srinath Viswanathan, Adrian Sabau

"In general, the occurrence of microporosity during metal casting is due to the combined effects of solidification shrinkage and gas precipitation. The governing equations for fluid flow and hydrogen evolution indicate that porosity formation and fluid flow are strongly coupled. However, in most studies on microporosity, it is considered that the porosity formation does not influence the fluid flow in the mushy zone. In this study, a computational methodology is presented for the numerical simulation of interdendritic fluid flow and microporosity evolution. The solution algorithm presented includes a fully coupled, implicit treatment of microporosity and local pressure in the mushy zone. The effects of microporosity evolution due to the local pressure drop in the mushy zone, and pore expansion in casting regions where liquid feeding alone cannot compensate for the solidification shrinkage are also considered. It is shown that neglecting the effect of porosity formation on the pressure in the mushy zone yields higher pressure drops. By its growth, microporosity partially compensates for the solidification shrinkage, reducing the feeding demand. A reduced feeding demand requires less fluid flow to compensate for solidification shrinkage, and results in smaller pressure drops in the mushy zone. Therefore, in order to accurately describe casting defects, comprehensive models of fluid flow, heat transfer, and solidification must include the effect of microporosity as well.IntroductionIn the terminology commonly used by foundrymen, porosity is usually considered to be either ""hydrogen"" or ""shrinkage"" porosity. Hydrogen porosity is the term given to porosity that is generally rounded, isolated, and well distributed. Porosity that is interconnected or clustered, and of an irregular shape corresponding to the shape of the interdendritic region, is usually termed shrinkage. In general, the occurrence of microporosity in aluminum alloys is due to the combined effects of solidification shrinkage and gas precipitation [1]. Continuum models [1, 2- 7] have been used to predict the level of porosity in castings. A number of other studies have also attempted to understand the phenomena of porosity formation and pore growth [8-10] and pore morphology [11].The governing equations for fluid flow and hydrogen evolution indicate that porosity formation and fluid flow are strongly coupled. However, in most studies [4, 9, 10], it is considered that the porosity formation does not influence the fluid flow in the mushy zone. Kubo and Pehlke [3] presented a methodology for the prediction of microporosity distribution in shaped castings by considering the effects of both the hydrogen precipitation during solidification and the pressure drop in the mushy zone. In their approach, the local pressure and porosity were computed in an uncoupled manner based on a ""flux of interdendritic liquid"" criterion, i.e., either pressure or porosity was first computed using the other variable at the previous time step. Their approach has been used with little change in numerous studies [6, 12, 13]. Recently, Kuznetsov and Vafai [14] presented a fully coupled, one-dimensional model for the computation of pressure and porosity. They showed that neglecting the effect of porosity formation on the pressure in the mushy zone yields higher pressure drops and an over-prediction of final porosity. They also showed that the influence of porosity formation on the pressure is larger at lower pressures in the mushy zone."

Jan 1, 2001

By R G. Barker

The NZ Minerals Industry Association has continued to advance the interests of the minerals sector through leading the establishment of a Minerals Industry Advisory Committee, and the preparation of a technology strategy with funding assistance from the Foundation for Research, Science and Technology. The current moves mirror those of more than 30 years ago when a government initiative led to a resurgence of exploration through amending the mining legislation, redirecting Government research priorities and tax changes. The economic and political and commercial environment in 2001 is very different from that of the 1960s and success of these new initiatives depends on the continuing support and involvement of all sectors of the minerals industry, and building an improved relationship with the Government and the public.

Jan 1, 2001

By A. Cole, A. Bolland

The roasting and gas handling circuits at Goldstrikes' new Roasting Facility incorporate proven technologies in a unique combination. During the design of the plant, every effort was made to utilize the best available unit operations from the perspective of capital, environment and operating costs. The roaster utilizes Freeport-McMoRan whole ore roasting technology with pure oxygen as the oxidizing gas. This process was chosen based on its proven application on Carlin-type carbonaceous ores. An extensive gas cleaning train follows the roaster and comprises direct cooling, dust scrubbing, indirect cooling, wet electrostatic precipitation, mercury scrubbing, SO2 scrubbing, CO incineration and NOX reduction.

Jan 1, 2001

By N. R. Williams

Black Mountain, a polymetallic base metal mine located in the Northern Cape territory of South Africa has been blessed with high grade economic ore for many years. Now that the Broken Hill orebody is nearing the end of its life, a lower grade orebody (Swartberg) is being exploited to supplement production from Broken Hill. In addition, ore from stopes in the upper levels of the Broken Hill orebody is considerably tarnished (oxidized). As a natural result, the remaining ore contains a higher percentage of magnetite, pyrrhotite and pyrite than in earlier years. Bismuth, cadmium and cobalt also occur in the ore in higher quantities. The life of the mine has been lengthened with the discovery of further deeper-lying ore reserves extending from the Broken Hill orebody suitably called the Deeps section. However, to bridge the gap between development of the new reserve and the exhaustion of the old reserve, these lower grade and tarnished (oxidized) ores have to be treated. The mine has had reasonable success in identifying unfavourable or problematic ore types and stockpiling them separately to blend in small quantities with more favourable ore. Bench and plant scale tests have aided identification of the various ore types and significant improvements in flotation metallurgical results have been seen. Copper, lead and zinc metal occur as sulphides in the ore. The mill consists of a differential and sequential flotation process that extracts copper concentrate, lead concentrate and zinc concentrate respectively with silver metal recovered in the copper and lead concentrates. This paper describes the ore blending strategy employed at the mine to maximize the econo-metallurgical efficiency of the operation.

Jan 1, 2001