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By H. S. Duzgun, N. Demirel

Estimating productivity of a walking dragline is of paramount concern to mining engineers and mine planners. Risk based evaluation of the dragline productivity is a valuable tool to estimate the dragline’s long-term availability, to develop preventive maintenance plans and to make future projections about the dragline’s performance. This paper aims to provide mining professionals with an overview of risk assessment methodology for productivity of two walking draglines, Page 736 and Marion 7820, which have been operating in the Tunçbilek openpit coal mine of Turkish Coal Enterprises (TKI) in Turkey. The study encompasses three main stages: (i) acquiring of monthly maintenance records, operating hours, mechanical and electrical failure hours between 1998 and 2009; (ii) reliability modeling using mean time between failure data and (iii) determining hazard rate and consequences to compute risk associated with dragline productivity. The results showed that that Page 736 (15.29 m3) seemed to be more reliable and less likely to fail when compared with Marion 7820 (30.58 m3). The operating hours without failure range from 41 to 51 hours with 50% reliability.

Jan 1, 2011

By S. Kenzap, V. Kazakidis

Risk assessment is an essential component of mine feasibility studies. However, it is often challenging to identify the appropriate analysis and derive the required input data. The uniqueness of a mining project and the associated technical issues require customization of the risk assessment approach to meet both requirements and characteristics. The uncertainty driving the operating risk in mine feasibility studies and its assessment through Monte Carlo simulation as a component of a cash flow analysis are discussed in this paper. The paper introduces the use of the analytic hierarchy process for derivation of qualitative input and conducts quantification of the three main sources of operating performance delays, equipment, ground and schedule problems, in a cash flow simulation. A methodology for the assessment of operating risk in mine feasibility studies is presented.

Jan 1, 2011

By C. D. Taylor, A. L. Mazzella, A. L. Martikainen

In fluctuating airflow, continuous air velocity recording is the most reliable method of air velocity measurement. It allows for fast recognition of changes and the calculation of long-term averages. Also, it enables the mine operator to identify when the airflow has decreased to a point requiring action. Using ultrasonic anemometers provides an accurate option for continuous air velocity monitoring. This paper provides information about the effect of common obstructions in underground mining on air velocity readings. Stationary and moving obstructions are used to represent workers and equipment that would cause discrepancies in measured airflow. Also, it is important to know how large of a sample size is required to ensure reasonable accuracy of results. Statistical analysis is used to evaluate the required sample size. The sampling procedure is further studied by comparing two different sample rates. The results show that obstructions provide noticeable differences in air velocity measurements. Also, movement of obstructions can be recognized from changes in results. Surprisingly small sample sizes provide reliable air velocity information. Standard sample rates are found to be suitable for the underground environment.

Jan 1, 2011

By K. R. Griffin, K. D. Luxbacher, E. C. Jong

The schlieren technique describes an optical analysis method designed to enhance light distortions caused by air movement. The ability to visualize air flow has significant implications for analyzing underground mine ventilation systems, including the enhancement of surveys and models. Currently, traditional schlieren methods are impractical underground. Background-oriented schlieren (BOS) provides a solution to this problem. BOS requires two primary components, a professional quality digital camera and a schlieren background. A schlieren background is composed of a varying contrast repetitive pattern, such as black and white stripes. This background allows the camera’s sensor to capture minor light diffractions, such as those caused by air flow. Although BOS shows great potential for ventilation analysis, sensitivity is an issue. This paper seeks to validate the BOS technique for imaging flow through a regulator by comparing BOS images with traditional schlieren images. This paper also outlines initial experimental efforts used for the validation.

Jan 1, 2011

By A. Cecala, J. Noll, J. Organiscak

Many underground metal/nonmetal mines are using enclosed cabs on mining equipment to reduce the exposure of miners to diesel particulate matter (DPM). However, some enclosed cab systems may not be meeting their expected efficiency in capturing DPM, which could be a result of inappropriate filter use, cab leaks or insufficient pressurization. NIOSH investigated several types of filters for reducing DPM to determine which type had the best capture efficiency. The laboratory results indicated that a MERV 8 (minimum efficiency reporting value, as defined by the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air- Conditioning Engineers) filter captured about 50% of the DPM, a MERV 16 filter collected 96-98% of the DPM and two HEPA (high efficiency particulate air) grade filters captured over 99% of the DPM. NIOSH also performed a field study to measure the efficiency of two cabs at a limestone mine. The cab filtration systems of a loader and haul truck were found to be over 90% effective in removing DPM, except under certain operating conditions when the efficiency was as low as 41%. A possible reason for the low efficiencies is an open window in the cab, but more studies need performed to obtain a better understanding of the cause and solution of the problem.

Jan 1, 2011

By L. D. Patts, S. J. Janisko, E. G. Cauda, A. D. Bugarski, G. H. Schnakenberg, J. A. Hummer

Filtration systems with disposable filter elements (DFEs) are used in the underground coal mining industry to control particulate matter emissions from diesel-powered permissible and nonpermissible coal mining equipment. This study was conducted in underground mine conditions to evaluate three types of high-temperature DFEs used in those filtration systems. The DFEs were evaluated for their effects on the concentrations and size distributions of diesel aerosols and concentrations of nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2). Those effects were compared with the effects of a standard muffler. The experimental work was conducted directly in an underground environment using a unique diesel laboratory developed in an underground experimental mine. After an initial DFE degreening period, the filtration system with all three DFEs was found to be very effective at reducing total mass concentrations of aerosols in the mine air. The effectiveness of DFEs in filtering aerosol mass was found to be a function of the engine operating conditions. The efficiency of the new DFEs significantly increased with operating time and buildup of diesel particulate matter in the porous structure of the filter elements. A single laundering process did not exhibit substantial effects on the performance of the DFE elements. The effectiveness of DFEs in removing aerosols by number was strongly influenced by engine operating mode. The concentrations of nucleation mode aerosols in the mine air were found to be substantially higher for DFEs when the engine was operated at high-load modes rather than at low-load modes. Initial heating of certain DFEs resulted in visible white smoke and substantially elevated aerosol number concentrations. The effects of the DFEs on the total concentration of nitrogen oxides (NOX) were found to be minor. The NO2 fraction was found to be generally lower for the DFEs than for the muffler. The engine-out NO2 fraction of the total NOX was found to be substantially higher for low-load modes than for high-load modes..

Jan 1, 2011

By E. R. Spencer, E. R. Bauer, G. P. Cole

Overexposure to hazardous noise has been found in most mining sectors, with up to 100% of the surveyed workforce experiencing a noise dose that exceeds the U.S. Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) permissible exposure level (PEL). As a result, miners show elevated rates of hearing impairment of 70-90% by retirement age. To help manage noise exposures, the U.S. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) developed the Determination of Sound Exposures (DOSES) software and implementation guide for use by mine management and safety personnel. This paper describes the development, functions and basic operation of the initial-release version of DOSES. A revised version is being developed to incorporate additional user-suggested functions, and its development and implementation to assess noise control solutions will be described in a future article. The software relies on a time-motion study that profiles the worker’s daily activities. Observations about the worker’s location and tasks or other activities are recorded along with the start and end time, to determine the duration of the tasks so they can later be matched up with the noise data. The software gives the user the option of assessing dose relative to the MSHA PEL, the action level or the NIOSH recommended exposure limit. The software generates a variety of interactive on-screen displays showing where, when and how the worker’s noise dose accumulated. It also can generate customizable printed reports. These outputs can be used to highlight the tasks, locations and times that are associated with the greatest amount of a worker’s noise exposure. DOSES simplifies and streamlines the record keeping and analysis associated with time-motion studies and worker noise exposures, so mine management can make engineering noise control or administrative control decisions to limit the noise overexposure of their workers.

Jan 1, 2011

By J. C. Stankus, K. J. Ma, D. Faulkner

To protect mine personnel and moving equipment at underground roof fall areas, mine operators typically install steel sets, which are covered with wooden blocks and backfilled with an expanding-type cement material. In large roof falls, the cost of void backfilling becomes prohibitively high, causing some mines to leave the voids open. However, the durability of wood over time and the capability of the steel set and wood lagging to resist falling rock are unknown. This has caused concern for the U.S. Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) and ground control engineers. During the last few years, Keystone Mining Services, LLC developed various impact-resistant steel set designs that were approved by MSHA and installed in various underground fall rehabilitations. This paper presents an impact-resistant steel set design methodology, including (1) steel set design per AISC national standard, (2) design, development and laboratory testing of a waterproof coated impact-resistant lagging panel and (3) impactresistant steel set design based on the law of conservation of energy. Two underground cases will be included detailing the application of the system.

Jan 1, 2011

By X. Li, J. C. Stankus, J. Ma, H. Chen

Accurate evaluation of stress and geological conditions is critical to ground control design in underground openings. For a slope entry, the problem is more difficult, because a slope will transverse through many types of strata. Over the last few years, Keystone Mining Services LLC, an affiliate company of the Jennmar Corporation, has developed a new methodology designated the “Stress, geologic and support design system (SGS).” The method analyzes the stress, geology and support design for a mine slope. The method has been successfully applied in various new slopes across the United States, and ground control plans developed using SGS methodology has helped coal companies successfully pass review and/or hearings by state and federal regulatory agencies. With a case application in the U.S. Midwest, this paper details and demonstrates the main concepts of the methodology, including (1) analysis of stress and geology and identification of strong, fair and weak zones along the slope; (2) primary and supplemental support design; (3) long-term support design in the form of steel square sets or arches and (4) validation of the support design utilizing advanced finite element computer modeling.

Jan 1, 2011

By P. H. S. W. Kulatilake, T. Hudaverdi, C. Kuzu

Prediction of blast fragmentation plays a key role for overall productivity of mines. In this study, a new multivariate analysis procedure for prediction of blast fragmentation is presented. Several blasts performed in various mines and rock formations worldwide were brought together and evaluated. An extensive blast database was created. Blast design parameters, the modulus of elasticity and in-situ block size were considered to perform multivariate analysis. A complete multivariate analysis procedure was applied in three steps. First, a hierarchical cluster analysis was used to separate the blast data into different groups of similarity. Two different groups were formed based on the elasticity modulus values. In the second step, group memberships were checked by discriminant analysis. The dominant parameters of the occurrence of the groups were determined. Also, discriminant analysis was used to determine the group membership of the respective blasts. As the last step, the multivariate regression analysis was applied to develop prediction equations for estimation of the mean particle size of muckpiles. Two different prediction equations were developed based on the rock stiffness. Validation of the proposed equations on various mines was performed. Prediction capability of the proposed models was found to be strong. The models are not complex and are suitable for practical use at mines.

Jan 1, 2011

By S. Chatterjee, S. Bandopadhyay

A spatial modeling technique based on the Bayesian neural network (BNN) is proposed. Incorporation of the Bayesian method for posterior probability of the output parameter helps calculate the uncertainty associated with the estimate. Parameters of the BNN model were selected using a grid search algorithm. The expected value and the variance of block support were calculated by Markov chain Monte Carlo sampling of the posterior distribution at discretized points within the block. The BNN model was validated by applying it to the Walker Lake data set and comparing the results with ordinary kriging results. The comparison revealed that the proposed BNN method performs marginally better than ordinary kriging. The variance map is less smooth than with ordinary kriging, and the proportional effect is less in the BNN-based model than in the ordinary kriging model. The developed BNN model was applied to the Coho block of a placer gold deposit in Nome, AK. Results reveal that the BNN model is globally biased for the Coho block and underestimates the sample mean. The grade volume curve was developed by calculating the block mean and block variance after discretizing the block into a number of points and applying the BNN model to each discretized point.

Jan 1, 2011

By J. Kemeny, K. M. Kim

A site-specific blasting model has been developed for the Asarco Mission mine. The main inputs to the model are the in situ block size (F80), the post-blast fragmentation (P80) and the intact tensile strength (To). The output from the model is the specific blast energy (ESE). Modern techniques are being used to obtain the input parameters for the site-specific blast fragmentation model. In particular, image processing software is used to obtain both the in situ block size and the post-blast fragmentation, and the Schmidt hammer is used to obtain the tensile strength at numerous locations throughout the rock mass. An initial model was developed using five test shots in an area of the mine that contains argillite and is relatively homogeneous. This process also included calibrating Schmidt hammer readings against actual Brazilian tensile measurements. The model for argillite will be updated as more tests are conducted, and the model will be extended to the four other primary rock types at the Asarco Mission mine.

Jan 1, 2011

By Yi Luo

Subsidence events occurring above inactive room-and-pillar (R&P) mines, including abandoned mines or sealed portions of active mines, are classified as unplanned subsidence, because of their timing and distribution are unpredictable. When investigating such subsidence cases, many uncertainties exist and disputes often focused on whether the observed structural damages are caused by mine subsidence or other natural or artificial causes. However, solid evidence to identify the cause is often lacking. In order to conduct a complete and impartial investigation, thorough knowledge of subsidence theories and other ground control topics, as well as broad experience, are required.

Jan 1, 2011

The energy supply in the 21st century is still secured by coal. According to estimates of the International Energy Agency (IEA), coal will have the same importance as oil for the world-wide supply of energy until 2030. Coal is also an important element of EU policy, its future use is closely linked to effectively addressing the environmental challenges it poses. Hard and brown coal represent approximately 80 per cent of European Union (EU) reserves of fossil fuels and coal utilisation can co-exist with the development of power generation based on renewables. Europe is the world's third largest consumer of coal behind China and the United States.The Czech Republic is poor in energy resources except for coal. Brown coal is relatively abundant (mineable reserves estimated at 1800 Mt, output 48 Mt/a) and significant quantities of hard coal (mineable reserves 900 Mt, 13 Mt/a), much of it suitable for coke production, are also present.Severoceske Doly (SD Company), the biggest Czech coal mining company (22 Mt/a, 48.6 per cent Czech market share) and one of the biggest in Europe, reinforces despite the last deep crisis in the Czech and European economies its long-standing stable and strong market and financial position. From 2009, the SD Company co-owns, with partners, a brown-coal mining company MIBRAG (21 Mt/a). SD Company invests in large mining equipment (eg new giant spreaders and bucket-wheel excavators, extension of overland belt conveyors), rebuilds and upgrades mining and processing installations, auxiliary and other machinery. We should see the investment we make today in tomorrow's mining and reclamation as an opportunity and not as a burden. They enable to make our position more resistant in the longer term. Projects focused on the environment and operational safety went hand in hand with these efforts.R&D activities relate to technical innovations, improvements of mining equipment, research and evaluation of conditions for extracting coal seam and/or overburden and mitigation of environmental impacts, utilisation of coal in new products. The company spends considerable amounts on reclaiming affected land and creating a new post-mining landscape.Our dialogue with influential stakeholders in the region where we operate contributes to the long-term improvement in the quality of life of local residents. Such dialogue with communities in the last ten years has been instrumental for confidence building. SD Company helps to develop many projects of towns and villages in its vicinity. The stable and transparent relations with our neighbours are in accordance with our basic principles of corporate social responsibility.

Dec 6, 2010

The Electricity Generating Authority of Thailand (EGAT) Mae Moh coal mine is an open-cut coal mine in Thailand that produces about 16 Mt of lignite annually to generate 2400 MW of electricity. The surface mine pit covers is 4 km by 7 km with mining depths ranging up to 260 m. A large pit slope is formed with the progression of the mining operation. However, massive slides in the pit slope occur often due to the existence weak planes such as faults and bedding, and the weak mechanical properties of the rocks. Hence, 200 m to 300 m boundaries of rock block including coal seams are left in front of faults in order to prevent slides and maintain the stability of the pit slope. As a result, there are significant coal reserves beneath the abandoned area along the pit slope. Moreover, the mined coal seams are very thick and their thickness range from 15 to 30 m.This paper discusses the application of multi-slicing highwall mining system with stowing to this very thick coal seam left around large pit slopes by means of numerical analysis.

Dec 6, 2010

Grade uncertainty can have a number of important implications for a mining operation. One of the most significant risks in not considering grade uncertainty in planning is the over or under allocation of processing or mining capacity when compared to realised grades. This could lead to wasted capital expenditure or missed opportunities to add value. This paper demonstrates a method that optimises production capacity and mining schedules in the presence of grade uncertainty. Applying this method to the case study of a nickel deposit recommended a reduction in processing capacity, an increase in mining capacity and more extensive utilisation of stockpiles than optimisations completed with traditional methods. As a result, average NPV improvements of between seven per cent and 27 per cent were gained.

Dec 6, 2010

Prefeasibility planning and cost estimation of conveyor systems has historically been undertaken by comparing fixed plant transport requirements to that of similar systems in service. This paper describes the development of a prefeasibility conveyor technical design and cost estimation application using Microsoft Excel Visual Basic for Applications (VBA) platform. The application tool known as D-Convey (Dachshund Convey) was developed with the goal enabling the end user:- to develop a technical model for conceptualised conveyor systems,- to perform economic analysis on the developed technical model, and - to conduct a comparative and risk analysis.An Excel VBA based platform was utilised to draw upon both the analytical and graphical capabilities of a spreadsheet. Some of the features of D-Convey system include a revolutionary dynamic graphical help system, known as the 'information pane' in lieu of traditional help files as well as the use of familiar graphical user interface elements such as the MS Office 2007 task ribbon. The D-Convey system incorporates material database allowing for mass handling prefeasibility estimation in other industries; it has been validated at a local quarry.

Dec 6, 2010

A simulation and animation model was constructed for the Stockton Coal Mine. This mine is located in the north western area of the South Island of New Zealand. This model was used to study the optimum size of the stockpile areas whilst achieving the correct product coal qualities. The model evaluated the impact on stockpile size and product coal qualities for both bulk and selective mining. The effect of modifying the amount of known clean coal quality was also investigated. The software used was GPSS/H« for the simulation and Proof Professional« for the animation. From the study, it was recommended to incorporate selective mining in future studies. The shipping plan needed to be modified for a better correlation between coal production levels, in situ coal resources and wash plant capacity.

Dec 6, 2010

The problems arising in the excavation of hard rocks with the use of mechanical tools consist chiefly in a slow advance rate accompanied by an intensive wear due to the toughness and abrasiveness of the rock. In order to allow the further extension of mechanical excavation beyond the limits of the presently available technology, the assistance of waterjet aiming at improving the performance of the equipment while reducing the wear rate of the tools, has been recognised as one of the most interesting technical solutions. The paper illustrates the improvement of the performance of both disk cutters and picks obtained with the waterjet assistance at the Waterjet Laboratory of the University of Cagliari on a medium-hard rock.

Dec 6, 2010

Mining One (M1) is often challenged with the task of evaluating deposits considering open cut and/or underground (UG) mining methods. In many near surface deposits a combination of both methods results in the optimum economic means of exploitation. As common as it is to have open pit mines eventually develop into underground mines, theory associated with determining the optimum underground/open pit interface location continues to be subject to refinement. With recent developments in underground software packages, the generation of rudimentary underground mining stopes from basic economic inputs is not only fast, it provides a practical underground mining solution. The determination of the open pit/underground interface is not new to Gemcom's Whittle 4X (Whittle). However, its solution has only ever claimed to be indicative, mainly due the rudimentary nature of how Whittle represents any potential underground mining. The efficient generation of the aforementioned underground mining solution has provided mining engineers with a unique opportunity. Underground mining can now be represented within the Whittle environment to allow the open pit/underground mining scenario to be modelled with increased accuracy. Providing Whittle with the ability to now consider mineable underground stopes combined with the consideration of time value of money (discounting), has delivered a solution with higher credibility than ever before.This paper will elaborate on the potential value gains associated with improved accuracies in the modelling of any potential underground mining in the Whittle environment. Furthermore, it will explain the importance of incorporating time value of money in the optimisation process to provide a consistent solution through to pit selection and final analysis.

Dec 6, 2010