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By A. L. Holmes

Since the 1981 record of 54 mm tons of US fertilizer consumption, grain surpluses in the US have brought about massive acreage reduction programs, decreased fertilizer consumption, and resulting price pressures caused by excess capacity. The strong US dollar that reduced export sales of both grain and fertilizer, and new offshore manufacturing capacity using US engineering/contracting know-how have combined to put US producers of phosphate fertilizers in uncompetitive postures. While recent events suggest the industry may be growing out of this capacity problem, the cost of US phosphates will continue to be disadvantaged by such external factors as taxes, environ- mental regulations, and high power costs. There is no reason to expect help from the government in the form of reduced environmental regulation and taxation. In order to survive, phosphate fertilizer producers will have to develop technologies and adopt strategies that result in world competitive production costs. Current responses to the need to reduce costs include reduced energy costs through cogeneration, innovative reclamation techniques that create valuable land, and in- creased raw material recovery achieved by operator proficiency. While new technology offers long-term benefits for the producer, present efforts are concentrated on more mundane management efforts to reduce costs. Major attention is being given to the problems of labor utilization and productivity. Raw materials suppliers are being asked to renegotiate contracts which more appropriately reflect conditions in an industry operating at about 50% of capacity. Achievements in these and other areas will allow the producers to continue operating until longer term benefits materialize. `

Jan 1, 1986

By I. E. A. Aghachi

During static strain-aging of low carbon steel, when the material is pre-strained, the dislocation density increases. If totally or partially unloaded and aged for a prescribed time, interstitial solute atoms diffuse under the influence of the dislocation stress fields, thus tending to lock dislocations causing an increase in yield stress. If held for long periods at certain aging temperature, a decrease in yield stress (over-aging) is observed following the initial increase. This behaviour has been variously attributed to either recovery of cold worked dislocation structure and/or formation and coarsening of carbide precipitates. The present work demonstrates that, using a "process control" model for the competing processes of hardening and softening, dislocation recovery is responsible for over-aging of mild steel specimens under conditions tested during this investigation. Keywords: Strain-aging, Precipitation, Recovery

Jan 1, 2003

By Michael J. Miller

The demand and supply of wollastonite has gone through a dynamic period in the 1990's. A 10% -15% growth rate of demand stimulated interest in evaluating new projects. However, the mid-1990's brought declining prices for commodity applications and natural barriers to entry for technical applications, making many of these potential projects uneconomic. Successful projects that were brought to market were done so by incumbent producers. This work examines the competitive structure of the wollastonite market by evaluating the strategic decisions of the industry leader, NYCO Minerals Inc., and a new market entrant, Orleans Resources, in an attempt to identify the environmental threats and opportunities of this industry. Results suggest new entrants like Orleans Resources face significant entry barriers for technical applications, while NYCO Minerals could improve its profitability by having less exposure to commodity applications.

Jan 1, 1999

By J. G. Pippenger

The Coteau Properties Company's Freedom Mine is a surface lignite mining operation located near Beulah, North Dakota. Coteau, a wholly owned subsidiary of The North American Coal Corporation, produces more than 13.5 million tonnes per year, ranking it among the largest mines in North America. In 1993, Coteau ranked seventh in terms of annual coal sales, becoming the largest mine outside the Powder River Basin of northeastern Wyoming. However, for the Freedom Mine to stand among these Powder River heavyweights, Coteau over-came several obstacles, including a coal seam with three quarters the heating value and overburden to coal ratios three times higher than the Powder River mines. Coteau's ability to compete has been built around a program of continuous productivity improvement, cost efficiency, and innovation. This report highlights a few of the major improvements implemented in recent years.

Jan 1, 1995

By Lorne Sivertson, Peter Kitrredge

"World metallurgical coal imports totalled 110million tonnes in 1978. Of this amount, Japan imported 50 million tonnes, making it by far the largest and most important coking coal market . British Columbia and Alberta exported 12.0 million tonnes of coking coal in 1978, or 11% of the world total. Virtually all of these exports were directed to Japan, making up 22% of total imports.Some observers have suggested that because Japan is almost the exclusive buyer of British Columbia and Alberta metallurgical coal, the benefits of the coal trade may be primarily on the side of the powerful Japanese buyers. Buttressing this suspicion is the fact that Japanese trading companies have taken substantial equity positions in B.C. coal mines, thus presenting the possibility of non-arms-Iength transfer arrangements. There is then at least some evidence to support the hypothesis that Canada's western coal producers receive prices that are less than would prevail in a more competitive market; that is, that they are exploited.This paper produces evidence that Canada's coals are not underpriced in respect to U.S. and world markets. The conclusion is drawn that British Columbia and Alberta metallurgical coals receive prices that are equal to prices known to be competitively determined. This conclusion follows an in-depth analysis of prices, coal qualities and the economic characteristics of all major coals traded in the Japanese market. A by-product of the analysis is an equation capable of predicting the value of any metallurgical coal sold to Japanese buyers, or, for that matter, any buyer. Hopefully, this can be of some use to coal producers in developing their marketing strategies."

Jan 1, 1980

By J Williams

The recent drought has highlighted the finite nature of AustraliaÆs divertible water resources. According to AustraliaÆs recently completed National Land and Water Resources Audit, development of water resources in southern Australia has reached or exceeded sustainable extraction limits. Similarly, 161 out of 538 groundwater management units are either totally allocated or already over allocated. Whilst mining only uses about three per cent of diverted water resources, water scarcity may be a major factor that determines whether potential mines can be developed in the future. Furthermore, the development of extraction and processing facilities that limit water use and maximise the re-use the waste water streams will be even more fundamental features of the mining industry in the 21st century than they are at present. There are encouraging examples where innovative water re-use technologies are significantly reducing the water used per unit of mined product. Whilst mining in the areas of Australia draining to the tropical seas may be less constrained by a current lack of water (60 per cent of divertible water resources drain into the Timor Sea, Gulf of Carpentaria and north east Coral Sea), it is highly probable that there will be increasing demand for these waters from the irrigation industry, whilst pressure will also be applied to ensure that environmental flows that benefit the coastal fishing and prawn industries are maintained. In the Great Artesian Basin, current research is demonstrating that the groundwaters are being recharged at rates considerably lower than current extraction. Whilst some other groundwater basins in arid and semi-arid Australia have currently untapped resources, these water are often relatively saline and/or may be intimately linked with key ecosystems in discharge areas. This paper presents an overview of the current state of our water resources and examines some of the key water use issues including allocation, use and reuse, environmental flows and competing demands on the resource that will ensure that water issues remain high on the policy agenda for mining, irrigation and other water users.

Jan 1, 2003

By B. L. Bobo

To ensure the continued growth and economic viability of the Western coal industry, both in the domestic and inter- national markets, it is essential for the industry to become more creative and active in confronting the most serious obstacle in this objective; and that is, the inherently long distances which Western coal must be transported inland to reach its major markets. Figure 1 shows the 1982 coal consumption by state for those states where Western coal was consumed. (Except as noted in this paper, Western coal producing states are defined as Colorado, New Mexico, Arizona, Utah, Wyoming, Montana and North Dakota. Any exceptions used will have only an insignificant effect on the content of the paper). This figure illustrates the long distances that are required for Western coal to reach its markets. The total production for 1982 from the Western coal producing states was approximately 220 million tons, of which only 85 million tons was consumed within the boundaries of these states. The remainder was transported to markets outside the area. This map also shows, based strictly on the consumption of the states to which Western coal was shipped during 1982 and not considering other factors which are involved in the marketing of coal, the total market potential of Western coal would amount to a total of 445 million tons. This does not include export coal from the West Coast, which is now estimated to be less than 2 million tons for 1983. In 1980, it had been estimated that by 1985 the West Coast exports would have been at least 10 million tons per year, which will not be attained.

Jan 1, 1983

By W. F. Mullen

Within the scope of this discussion, artificial dimension stone is defined as any manufactured product used as a substitute for natural dimension stone. The history of the development of these substitute materials is reviewed briefly, representative characteristics of each product are listed, several analyses of their market position are presented, and suggestions are made for recapturing markets lost to these products and preventing additional inroads.

Jan 1, 1959

By Leons Kovisars

Introduction Competitive analysis is the collection and evaluation of data on a product, a product line or on an entire industry. Much of the focus of competitive analysis centers on production volume and the price targets of the competitors. In actual practice capacity may be used in place of production volume. Similarly, unit production costs and individual producing units - mines, mills, smelters, refineries - may be the targets of the analysis. The purpose of competitive analysis is to provide information for strategic planning. The analysis will locate the position of the company in the industry and define the competitive margin -- or lack of a margin - between the company and other producers. The analysis can show the current situation and may be expanded to examine the outlook for the future. The forecast option is particularly valuable because it will show the opportunities for new project development or the expansion of current production. Similarly, the forecast will show the potential threat from new entrants, and may provide early warning to reconsider operations that may become uncompetitive in the future. Production cost analysis is a clearly understood means to evaluate producers and estimate the outlook for their profitability. The cumulative cost for the industry outlines the supply structure and defines the marginal cost of production used in developing price forecast as explained in the sub- sequent section of this paper. Competitive analysis is particularly important to the mining industry, notably to metal producers. The final product is typically a purified metal conforming to standards, and interchangable with the output of other producers, i.e. a fungible commodity. Brand loyalty is questionable in the mineral industry. Consumers will show a preference for specific brands, but this preference will be limited to a premium of several percent over the general market price. Price and assurance of supply are the keys to marketing success. Assurance of supply depends on geopolitical considerations and production capabilities. Price will be closely related to cost of production and a thorough competitive analysis should describe the cost structure of the industry. This snapshot will locate one's own position and provide an immediate and readily understandable evaluation of the hazards and opportunities inherent in this position. In the following section we shall discuss elements, methods and sources for competitive evaluation. ELEMENTS OF COMPETITIVE ANALYSIS The practice of systematic collection and analysis of data on competition is hardly a new concept; see, for example, Wall (1) or Porter (2). However, most discussions have been in the context of conventional industrial or manufacturing industries, with a focus on product lines and brand marketing. These considerations are not irrelevant to mining but they do have only a limited application. The key to success in the mining industry is minimizing the cost of production. However, this simple concept becomes complex when we consider relevant costs and the planning horizon. Production costs include the factors consumed in production, namely labor, fuel, energy, materials and supplies. The cost also includes purchased and contracted services such as freight, smelting and refining, sampling and sales required to convert ore to the finished metal. Royalties and ad valorem taxes paid on gross production are direct expenses, as is the cost of administration required by the production units. The sum of these outflows is the total cash cost, the expense that has to be paid in cash in order to continue production. Indirect costs incurred by a producer will commonly include allocated headquarters expenses, as well as the capital charges associated with equity investment and debt. Profit is not generally considered an indirect cost even though it represents the cost of using the owner's capital; similarly, income taxes represent the government's participation in the profits of the enterprise. Interest payments are considered as a direct expense in some cost studies, but many competitive evaluations would consider

Jan 1, 1985

By A. J. Mcintosh

PRICE changes in competing fuels in the last three decades have reflected the changes in the consuming habits of the people of the United States. Prior to World War 11 the importance of fuel oil and fuel gas increased almost constantly while the relative importance of both bituminous and anthracite coal decreased. During this same prewar period coal prices increased to a much greater extent than oil prices. In fact, in many years, oil prices declined and in most cases are now no higher than they were back in 1925-26. During the war natural economic trends were entirely upset because of the tremendous petroleum requirements of the Army and Navy. Under these conditions many industrial plants were converted to the use of coal and the new installations in home heating and industrial plants of all kinds which might have used oil were practically eliminated. Although petroleum prices were rigidly controlled by OPA coal prices increased several times during the war. An over-all statement as to the rela-

Jan 1, 1947

By Myles E. Robinson

During the last decade there were pronounced changes in the competitive pattern of the fossill fuels It is proposed to trace these trends and describe inter-fuel competition, first as it relates to the economy as a whole and then more specifically to examine competition of the fossil fuels as these share the electric utility market. Table 1, Competitive Fuels and Water Power Used in the United States, 1950-1959, shows the growth in the consumption of coal, oil, gas and water power 'during the past decade. Uses which are not directly competitive among the fuels, such as tractor fuel, carbon black, and consumption of petroleum products in the making of synthetic rubber, have been excluded from these statistics. The experience of the three fossil fuels in competition since 1950 shows natural gas expanding more rapidly, than oil by roughly twice as much, 219.0 percent' compared to 124.1 percent growth in B.t.u.s of oil consumed in the ten-year period. Percentagewise, water power little more than held its own, and coal, including anthracite, actually decreased more than one-fifth.

Jan 1, 1961

By Xie Zhang, Jiang Diao, Xiaojun Li, Bing Xie

"Vanadium is widely utilized as an important element to improve the quality of alloyed steels in iron and steel industry. Moreover, the crystallization process of V-containing spinels plays a significant role due to the aim of achieving a fairly larger size of spinel crystals in vanadium extraction. Thus, a comprehensive exploration and discussion on the competitive precipitation and growth of vanadium, chromium and titanium spinel crystals in vanadium slag during a cooling process were carried out in the present study on the basis of a crystallization kinetic model. To be more specific, the abilities of forming crystal, precipitation order and suitable temperature range for crystallization of the three kinds of spinels were discussed with both theoretical and experimental methods.IntroductionVanadium is an important element which is used almost exclusively in ferrous and non-ferrous alloys due to its excellent physical properties such as high tensile strength, hardness, and fatigue resistance [1]. Various kinds of processes of vanadium extraction from V-containing hot metal are available at present. However, only four processes which are the Highveld process (South Africa), the Pan-steel process (China), the NTMK duplex process (Russia) and the New Zealand steel process (New Zealand) take the dominant positions [2, 3]. Although the type of reactor and the initial vanadium content in hot metal are different in these techniques, they share the same principle that vanadium is oxidized by oxygen into vanadium slag."

Jan 1, 2012

By Y. W. Chung, W. I. Chia

"The interaction of water vapor with single crystal Ni3(Al,Ti) and polycrystalline Ni3Fe, with and without the presence of oxygen, has been studied with Auger electron spectroscopy, photoemission spectroscopy, thermal desorption and isotope exchange. Water dissociates to produce atomic hydrogen above 200 K on both Ni3(Al,Ti) and Ni3Fe surfaces. For Ni3(Al, Ti), the reaction is structure-sensitive. Pre-adsorbed or co-adsorbed oxygen on Ni3(Al,Ti) and Ni3Fe significantly suppresses hydrogen production due to water dissociation. This suppression process occurs more efficiently on Ni3Fe than Ni3(Al, Ti).IntroductionOrdered intermetallic compounds such as aluminides, silicides and titanides are very attractive for structural applications at high temperatures. This is because these intermetallics tend to form adherent oxides in oxidizing environments which protect the base materials from excessive oxidation and corrosion. In addition, they have low density, relatively high melting points and good high-temperature strength. However, the moisture in air severely embrittles many ordered intermetallics such as FeAl [1-3], Fe3A1 [4,5], C03Ti [6,7], (Co,Fe)) V [8], Ni3Si [9], Ni3(Si,Ti) [10], Ni3(AI,Mn) [Ill, and Ni3A1 [12-14], resulting in low 'ductility and brittle fracture at room temperature. Recent studies by Liu and coworkers (see review by George and Liu [15]) provide a qualitative description of the mechanism for this moisture-induced embrittlement. During elongation testing, cracks are formed, thus exposing fresh alloy surfaces. One or more active components of the alloy react with water vapor in the environment to produce atomic hydrogen which penetrates into crack tips and causes hydrogen embrittlement. This is similar to that proposed for moisture-induced embrittlement of aluminum alloys [16]."

Jan 1, 1996

By K. Sawada

Along with the expanding demand of copper concentrate in Asian countries, custom-smelters have confronted with difficulties of low TC/RC. Now, Japanese Copper Industry have 2 options; investment in mine development and/or recycling of copper scraps. The strategy of global mining companies is analyzed, and implications for Japanese Copper Industry will be discussed from the viewpoint of sustainability of smelters in Japan.

Jan 1, 2014

By Gillies A. D S

Rail, port and shipping charges represent 30 to 50 per cent of landed costs for Australian coal mines selling to Asia. This proportion is higher for sales to Europe, yet it is in Europe where Australian producers are aiming for increased market share. The landed cost of coal to the international customer is the key parameter which determines market competitiveness. The objective of this study is to examine Australian export coal competitiveness in terms of transport distance. The approach used examines world coking coal and steaming coal production and the transport distances between major exporting regions and importing countries. Reference is made to the importance of land transport costs and a comparative approach for emphasising the relative magnitude of this factor is developed. Models developed are examined in terms of Australia's exports and a conclusion is reached that a reduction in rail freight costs would be an effective measure for improving the competitiveness of Australia's coal industry.

Jan 1, 1994

By Mauro Vivaldino Fernandes

Os desafios para o aprimoramento do desempenho operacional dos altos-fornos constituem um campo aberto para o desenvolvimento e aplicação de métodos de controle que promovam a otimização da operação do reator, aliada ao prolongamento da sua vida útil. O Alto-Forno 3 da Usiminas - Ipatinga, nesta sua 4ª campanha, foi projetado para 15 anos de operação, com uma produção estimada de 41 milhões de toneladas de gusa. Os resultados da campanha atual, em termos de produção e de duração da campanha, superam os dados projetados. Neste contexto, são apresentadas as principais características do Alto-Forno 3 na sua atual campanha, a evolução do seu desempenho em termos de produtividade e tempo de operação, além das principais ações direcionadas para a preservação e estabilidade do sistema de refrigeração e do cadinho, contribuindo para o prolongamento da sua vida útil. Como resultado destes esforços, a vida útil estimada do Alto-Forno 3 é de 22 anos, superando em 7 anos a duração prevista.

Oct 30, 2017

By E. Gaucher, D. C. Gagnon

"The paper refers to methods and concepts used in the computer treatment of banks of geophysical, geochemical and geological data, relating to the exploration of massive sulphides. In particular, a data bank of 400 drill holes on independent conductors can be used to calculate probability levels of intersecting a certain quantity of sulphides according to the characteristics of the conductor. Inversely one can, using the data bank and some cost assumptions, simulate and optimize the cost of intersecting a certain quantity of sulphides by selecting drill targets among conductors according to conductivity, magnetism or gravity. Problems of noise, inherent in any simulation, are illustrated in this paper by the results of a study of the nomenclature of volcanic rocks of 27 drill holes by forty geologists. Compilations of data banks are long and timeconsuming, and it would help to standardize to allow exchange of data. We believe that such efforts may result in the discovery of more mineral deposits and at a lower cost. The present study is supported jointly by SOQUEM The New Jersey Zinc Co. and Cominco Ltd."

Jan 1, 1973

By Pierre O'Dowd

"The southern Abitibi Belt is the major source of gold in Quebec. Although the northern part of the belt is quickly being developed, the area under study will not be downgraded in the near future because it still contains more than 75% of the known reserves in the belt.Gold is found in a variety of geological environments which are part of a small number of distinct structural patterns. For the exploration geologist, outlining such patterns might be easier and more productive than defining, when it is possible, the exact genetic nature of the gold mineralization.Exploring in the right place has always been one of the main concerns of explorationists. This paper briefly describes the various favourable geological settings, and outlines areas, types of structure and lithologies of high potential for gold exploration in the southern Abitibi Belt.IntroductionThe southern part of the Abitibi Belt is a profilic mining area for precious and base metals (Lulin 1990). Although mineralizing processes and controls of polymetallic deposits are well known and understood (Lydon 1984), almost every gold occurrence is a unique case and numerous models have been proposed (Roberts 1987; Hodgson and McGeehan 1982; Hodgson 1990).This study does not define new genetic models for the formation of gold deposits, neither is it meant to elaborate on the existing ones. A genetic approach, is by definition, theoretical and, to some extent, universal. It helps geologists define types of targets and exploration tools but does not outline or quantify target areas. To tentatively summarize the complexity of a genetic approach, a brief discussion on the various genetic models in vogue in Abitibi and the problems related to their use in exploration can be found at the end of this paper."

Jan 1, 1991

By Euler De Souza

The authors conducted a study of backfill practices in underground mines across Canada to assess the current state of backfill usage and to overview potential hazards associated with backfill practice, from preparation to transportation to placement. The primary aim of this study was to cover each component of a typical mine backfill system, and to identify potential incidents leading to the disruption of backfilling operations and any associated corrective actions. This paper, Part I of the study, deals with surface operations consisting of backfill material supply and backfill plant preparation. Part II of the study, which deals with underground operations consisting of backfill transportation and backfill placement, is also presented in these proceedings. A review of safety measures associated with current backfill operations and recommendations for procedures of best practice that should be implemented to reduce fill-related hazards in all mine backfill workplace environments are presented. In general it has been found that system failures normally lead only to minor losses to the operations.

May 1, 2009

By Jamie Archibald

The Department of Mining Engineering at Queen?s University conducted a study of backfill practices in underground mines across Canada to assess the current state of backfill usage and to overview potential hazards associated with backfill practice, from preparation to transportation to placement. The primary aim of this study was to cover each component of a typical mine backfill system, and to identify potential incidents leading to the disruption of backfilling operations and any associated corrective actions. This paper, Part II of the study, deals with underground operations consisting of backfill transportation and backfill placement. Part I of the study, which deals with surface operations consisting of backfill material supply and backfill plant preparation, is also presented in these proceedings. A review of safety measures associated with current backfill operations and recommendations for procedures of best practice that should be implemented to reduce fill-related hazards in all mine backfill workplace environments are presented. In general it has been found that system failures normally lead only to minor losses to the operations.

May 1, 2009