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Jan 1, 1885

Q: This is December 1960 and Jafet Lindeberg and myself are sitting around the tape recorder. Jafet, who discovered the gold in Nome, Alaska, in 1898, is going to tell the story of the discovery and of his life up there-a period of some 25 years. Now. Jafet, let's start this off well back of that-start it of1 when you were in Norway and, briefly, tell about when you were born and where you were born, anti so on. Lindeberg: My home in Norway was Varanger in Northern Norway. I was born and raised there and our industry was lumbering, cutting cordwood out of birch, sawing lumber with water power, fishing and dairy work. Q: Did you have anything to do with reindeer? Lindeberg: I never had anything to do with reindeer. But reindeer were raised in the nearby county, called Kautokeino, and they used to come to the coast in the summer, but we had nothing to do with the industry.

Jan 7, 1964

By E. Teghtsoonian, K. G. Davis

Cobalt crystals of commercial purity have been tested in tension. Their resolved shear stress-shear strain curves are very similar in form to those for zinc, magnesium, and cadmium. There is an initial linear region for shear strains up to around 150 pct, the ratio of work hardening slope to shear modulus at room temperature being about 2 X x This is followed by an upturn, which is, PLASTIC deformation in metal single crystals with close-packed structures has been found strongly dependent on stacking-fault energy. The high stacking-fault energy hexagonal metals magnesium, zinc, and cadmium have been quite extensively tested, but up to now no data have been available for a comparable hexagonal metal with low stacking-fau1t energy' An however, smaller in magnitude for cobalt than for the other metals. Values for the critical resolved shear stress rise from 97 kg per sq cm at room temperature to approximately 170 kg per sq cm at -196 °C. The Cottrell-Stokes ratio is not constant either for variations in the strain rate or for temperature changes, its value decreasing with strain. investigation into the plastic deformation of cobalt, which has a very low stacking-fault energy, has therefore been undertaken. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES Cobalt crystals in the form of rods 0.3 cm in diam were grown in an electron-beam floating-zone refiner at a rate of zone travel of 25 cm per hr. Details of the growing procedure are given in Ref. 1. The zoned cobalt rods had the following analysis:

Jan 1, 1963

By J. D. Lubahn, R. P. Carreker, J. G. Leschen

The formation of slip bands in crystalline solids undergoing plastic deformation has recently been treated as a problem of nu-cleation and growth.' A simplified theory was developed and shown to be qualitatively consistent with certain experimental observations reported in the literature, such as the frequent failure of slip bands to traverse the entire crystal, the effect of specimen diameter and temperature on the yield stress, and the occurrence of incubation periods in the deformation of suddenly loaded crystals. The theory further predicts the appearance of transients in the rate of strain of a crystal when the applied stress is suddenly changed from one constant value to another. A transient consists of a discontinuous change in the strain rate followed by a gradual approach to a steady-state value. Such transient behavior apparently has not been recognized in previous experimental work. The preliminary experiments reported in the present paper were undertaken to confirm the existence of the predicted transients and thus to determine whether a more detailed treatment of the nucleation theory of slip might be theoretically and experimentally fruitful. Experimental Procedure A simple creep apparatus was assembled as shown in Fig I. Very little insulation was used on the furnace in order to facilitate rapid changes of temperature. Temperature was measured with a thermometer placed in the center of the furnace and was controlled by adjusting the Variac setting. The specimens were cold-headed in split-cylinder grips. The strain was measured as total elongation by a dial gauge sensitive to I/I0,000-in movement of the weight pan. Since the specimen gauge lengths were

Jan 1, 1949

By J. D. Lubahn, R. P. Carreker, J. G. Leschen

THE formation of slip bands in crystalline solids undergoing plastic deformation has recently been treated as a problem of nucleation and growth.1 A simplified theory was developed and shown to be qualitatively consistent with certain experimental observations reported in the literature, such as the frequent failure of slip bands to traverse the entire crystal, the effect of specimen diameter and temperature on the yield stress, and the occurrence of incubation periods in the deformation of suddenly loaded crystals. The theory further predicts the appearance of transients in the rate of strain of a crystal when the applied stress is suddenly changed from one constant value to another. A transient consists of a discontinuous change in the strain rate followed by a gradual approach to a steady-state value. Such transient behavior apparently has not been recognized in previous experimental work. The preliminary experiments reported in the present paper were undertaken to confirm the existence of the predicted transients and thus to determine whether a more detailed treatment of the nucleation theory of slip might be theoretically and experimentally fruitful. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE A simple creep apparatus was assembled as shown in Fig 1. Very little insulation was used on the furnace in order to facilitate rapid changes of temperature. Temperature was measured with a thermometer placed in the center of the furnace and was [ ] controlled by adjusting the Variac setting. The specimens were cold-headed in split-cylinder grips. The strain was measured as total elongation by a dial gauge sensitive to 1/10,000-in. movement of the weight pan. Since the specimen gauge lengths were

Jan 1, 1948

By P. E. Senseny

INTRODUCTION Massive hydraulic fractures have been used since 1949 in the petroleum industry to enhance production rates and increase recoverable reserves. Currently, a research program, the Multi-Well Experiment, is underway to develop the understanding and technology to a1 low economic production of the large gas reserves of the low permeability, lenticular sandstone formations in the western U.S. (Atkinson, et al, 1981; Northrop and Sattler, 1983). Use of state- of-the-art hydraulic fracturing techniques is a part of this investigation. As a portion of an extensive core program in support of this experiment (Sattler, 1983), fracture toughness has been determined for 56 sandstone, shale, mudstone, or siltstone horizons from three wells in the Piceance Basin. The role of fracture toughness in hydraulic fracturing is not well understood because other factors, such as in situ stress, dominate fracture geometry and containment. Rubin (1983) concluded from analysis of his laboratory hydrofracture experiments that fracture toughness should be included in design and numerical simulation of hydraulic fractures. However, van Eekelen (1982) contends that the stress intensity at the crack front should be so much greater than the fracture toughness of the rock that toughness can have no importance. Generally, fracture toughness and other material properties, such as elastic moduli and permeability, are thought to be of secondary importance in determining fracture geometry and containment. In spite of this, there is a need to acquire a more quantitative understanding of their importance for accurate design and simulation calculations. Analysis of fracture geometry and containment data from hydraulic fracturing experiments carried out in formations where fracture toughness and other rock properties are

Jan 1, 1984

By D. H. Yardley

Diversion of the American Falls of Niagara to permit investigation of ways and means to stabilize the falls while retaining or improving its natrual attractiveness is the geoengineering work that has received greatest public attention this year. The falls are re- treating slowly as rock falls occur while talus de- posits at the base have increased in size. One of the noteworthy questions is whether the talus should be removed-i.e. is it providing support to the base, and so what will happen if it is removed? Certainly the appearance would be improved if the talus were taken away. Geoengineering studies involve mapping of joints, stress measurements, core work and rock sampling and testing, Present work will provide data and interpretation for design of a long term stabilization system, Once basic information is obtained, water will be returned to the normal channel until such time as the detailed design is decided upon. The falls will then be diverted a second time while necessary work is performed. A number of site-environmental studies were carried out for the location of nuclear power plants. These projects involve geology, foundation engineering, hydrology, seismology, meteorlogy, marine geology (in some cases), rock mechanics and occasionally blast monitoring. In one case (investigated by Dames & Moore) the site area was underlain by caverns in limestones at shallow depths but with no surface expression. The geotechnical problems consisted of determining proper spacing of drill holes to locate caverns. Spacing was dependent on the smallest size of cavity that could constitute a support-stability problem for the plant. The finite element method of analysis was used to determine stress conditions around cavities of various size and depths, to assist in determining critical parameters.

Jan 1, 1970

By Robert L. Taylor, Richard E. Goodman

A complete rational analysis for design of excavation slopes and loaded rock masses is a desirable but perhaps unattainable goal. Irregular external and internal boundary conditions, poor understanding of failure criteria for large masses of rock, capricious material properties, and the importance of indeterminate forces and inaccessible and virtually unsampleable rock defects emphasize the importance of experience in this aspect of rock engineering. The experience must be correlated with geological factors. In certain regions the accumulation of such experience through the observation of existing rock slopes in various formations constitutes an important aspect of studies for design of rock excavations. In former times an accepted method of rock construction consisted of trials and adjustments. This approach is not often compatible with present methods of contract management. With the development of improved instruments and warning devices such as inclinometers, piezometers, relays, stress meters, and rock noise detectors, modified trial procedures of rock construction may reappear in specific applications. In spite of the great advances made, development of methods to predict the performance of rock slopes, abutments, and foundations deserves vigorous effort. Two distinct approaches may be taken. The rock mass in question may be considered a continuum and the stresses and strains throughout the region of influence of the work may be calculated. Or, the rock mass may be described as a discontinuum whose stability calculation involves the statics and kinematics of accumulations of rigid blocks. The prototype must lie in the range between these contrasting models. As yet, however, there is little reconciliation between the two methods

Jan 1, 1967

By Raimo Matikainen

Sublevel stoping has been used in Finland since the 1930's and today more than ten under- ground mines have adopted it as their main stoping method (Fig. I). Approximately 80% of the total underground tonnage is mined by sub- level stoping (Table 1) The first mines to introduce the sublevel stoping method in Finland were limestone mines. The development of sublevel stoping was very slow up to the mid 1960's when the switch to trackless mining started and the increase of mechanization lead to higher capacity and productivity. The method itself has been almost the same since the 1950's when long hole drilling was introduced. According to a future prognosis sublevel caving will give way to sub- level stoping; on the other hand, open pit mining will at the same time grow rapidly with some new mineral orebodies, which will he brought into production. Most Finnish orebodies are, however, only marginal ores and they could not support mining with more expensive methods than open pit mining or sublevel stoping. The future of sublevel stoping seems relatively bright. GEOLOGICAL AND ROCK MECHANICAL BACKGROUND The rock mechanical conditions in Finland are in general relatively good and the rocks firm. The compressive strength is normally 40 - 150 Mpa and modulus of elasticity 40 - 200 Gpa. Low values are common in altered and fractured rocks and near the ore contact Rock stress measurements have been carried out already for 20 years for mine design and monitoring purposes. The results of these measurements show that relatively high horizontal stresses seem to be common (Fig. 2).

Jan 1, 1981

By W. R. Wawersik, A. M. Starfield

The classical approach to room-and-pillar mine design in flat-lying, tabular ore bodies limits itself to the special case of an extensive and uniform system of pillars. Each pillar is then assumed to carry the same load, and this load is readily calculated from the extraction ratio e and the weight of the overburden : average pillar stress = [ ] where H is depth below surface, p is average density of overburden, and g is acceleration due to gravity. The average pillar load does not, in this case, depend on the mechanical properties of either the pillars or the surrounding rock mass. The only relevant physical property of the pillars is their compressive strength, (i.e., the maximum load-carrying ability) and the criterion for design is that the average pillar stress should not exceed this strength. The wider the pillar, the greater its strength, and the design of the system is concerned with reconciling this increase in strength to the requirements of roof control so as to optimize extraction.l Any departure from a uniform distribution of pillar loads invalidates the classical approach. Such departures may, for instance, be brought about by: (1) a nonuniform layout of pillars and remnants resulting from selective mining, (2) variations in geology which result in gross changes in the properties of part of the seam or the host rock, (3) deliberate use of abutment support in narrow panels, and (4) the use of yielding pillars for local roof support in conjunction with barrier pillars to carry the overburden load.

Jan 1, 1972

By Henri S. Swolfs

INTRODUCTION In this paper we present preliminary results of a research program in site characterization methodology. We are interested in under- standing the response of discontinuous rock to mechanical, hydrologic, and thermal loadings. To carry out such a study we selected a field site with simple geology, uniform distribution of lithologies, and easily verifiable boundary conditions on temperature, fluid flow and stresses. The spatial distribution of fractures at the site was established and tests were conducted to determine the temperature field, hydrology, rock-mass properties, and in situ stresses. As part of the study selected borehole instruments were compared to assess their performance and reliability. SITE GEOLOGY The study area is in the eastern part of South Table Mountain, a mesa near Golden, Colo. The exposed cap rock is a single lava flow of uniform thickness (6-7 m) that rests on the clastic sediments of the Denver Formation (Van Horn, 1976). The surface of the cap rock (N. 75º E., 3º S.) is topographically featureless and slopes south- southeast; drainage is predominantly downdip and punctuated by occasional contact springs. The age of the lava flow is 64-65 m.y., or early Paleocene. Paleo- botanic evidence confirms the upper part of the Denver Formation as Paleocene (Van Horn, 1976). "Rapid-rock" analyses of core samples from the lava flow at three depths (0.2, 3.3, and 5.8 m) suggest a uniform chemical composition throughout with an increase in the Fe2O3/ FeO ratio (1.05 to 1.60) with increasing depth, reflecting the existence of a perched water table in the lava flow, To identify the rock

Jan 1, 1984

By H. l. Burghoff

During the course of preparation of crystals of alpha brass for an investigation of their creep characteristics, a number of critically oriented crystals were produced. In each of these specimens, Po, the specimen axis, lay near some important crystallographic direction or on or near the border of two possible slip systems. Because of the unusual nature of their orientations, it was considered of interest to deform these specimcns in simple tension and to study orientation changes and any unusual occurrences, different from what would be expected for specimens ill which only one slip system had distinctly the highest maximum resolved shear stress. Choice of actual operating slip system in a crystal offering an immediate possibility of two slip systems would be expected to be due to chance., defeet, or some inhomogeneity. Even in an ideally perfect crystal so oriented, the natural oscillations of the atoms about their lattice positions would give rise to a condition wherein one slip system would be farored over the other at the critical shear stress. In the large, nonperfeet crystals of the present investigation, slip on both systems, but in different portions of the specimen, might occasionally be expected. Determination of Orientation and Operating Slip System Orientations of specimens before and after deformation were determined by Greninger&apos;s back-reflection Laue method.&apos; Elam2 has shown that deformation of alpha brass crystals proeceds as with crystals of aluminum and of copper; that is, the slip plane is a {111) plane and the slip direction is a <110> direction. There are, however, four possible slip planes of {111) form and each plane has three possible slip directions, so that there is a, total of 12 possible slip systems in a face-centered cubic lattjce. It is evident that the system for which the tangential component of shear is maximum will function

Jan 1, 1940

By H. l. Burghoff

During the course of preparation of crystals of alpha brass for an investigation of their creep characteristics, a number of critically oriented crystals were produced. In each of these specimens, Po, the specimen axis, lay near some important crystallographic direction or on or near the border of two possible slip systems. Because of the unusual nature of their orientations, it was considered of interest to deform these specimcns in simple tension and to study orientation changes and any unusual occurrences, different from what would be expected for specimens ill which only one slip system had distinctly the highest maximum resolved shear stress. Choice of actual operating slip system in a crystal offering an immediate possibility of two slip systems would be expected to be due to chance., defeet, or some inhomogeneity. Even in an ideally perfect crystal so oriented, the natural oscillations of the atoms about their lattice positions would give rise to a condition wherein one slip system would be farored over the other at the critical shear stress. In the large, nonperfeet crystals of the present investigation, slip on both systems, but in different portions of the specimen, might occasionally be expected. Determination of Orientation and Operating Slip System Orientations of specimens before and after deformation were determined by Greninger&apos;s back-reflection Laue method.&apos; Elam2 has shown that deformation of alpha brass crystals proeceds as with crystals of aluminum and of copper; that is, the slip plane is a {111) plane and the slip direction is a <110> direction. There are, however, four possible slip planes of {111) form and each plane has three possible slip directions, so that there is a, total of 12 possible slip systems in a face-centered cubic lattjce. It is evident that the system for which the tangential component of shear is maximum will function

Jan 1, 1940

By John C. Shyne, Eric R. Morgan

WHEN temper rolled low carbon sheet is stored at room temperature before use, changes take place in its mechanical properties. This phenomenon is known as strain aging. Normally these changes are observed by means of Olsen ductility and Rockwell B hardness tests but&apos; unfortunately such tests are relatively insensitive. Strain aging can be readily observed in the laboratory by means of tensile tests. The tensile test method is even more sensitive if the aging is allowed to take place in specimens which have been prestrained in tension rather than by cold rolling. In fact one of the great benefits of commercial temper rolling is that it introduces a residual stress pattern which tends to mask the effects of strain aging when the sheet is finally used in a pressing operation. Curves B, C, and D of Fig. 1 illustrate the changes that take place during the aging of commercial rimmed steel at room temperature following straining in tension, curve A, Fig. 1. The first important change that can be observed is an increase in the stress required to produce plastic flow. This increase is, in this paper, called the aging index. As aging proceeds and the aging index increases, there is also an observable return of the yield point, an increase in the ultimate tensile strength, and a decrease in elongation to fracture. The results of strain aging in deep drawing steel manifest themselves as stretcher strains (L?ders bands) buckling, 2nd tearing. In deep drawn parts such effects are undesirable and strain aging is a serious problem. The rate of strain aging of a steel depends upon its composition and prior mechanical and thermal history? but for most temper rolled ope

Jan 1, 1958

By Ripu Daman Lama

The size of coal pillars in mines until recently has been determined by experience without being based upon scientific investigations. As a consequence, the size of pillars had invariably been larger than could be accounted for because of the number of unknown factors involved which influence the strength, dictating the use of large safety factors. With the mining going deeper, the size of the pillars greatly increases and sometimes a considerable portion of the mineral property are blocked in the mine pillars required to support the superincumbent strata. With the advances in the field of Rock Mechanics, attention of mine planning engineers has been focused upon the design of mine pillars for safe and efficient working as well as decrease losses of coal. The problem involves the study of three factors: (1) Presence of stresses in the area and their distribution on pillars in the course of extraction. (2) The influence of external factors on the strength of coal. (3) The inherent mechanical properties of coal. These aspects have been studied by a large number of investigators, the first by in-situ stress measurements and photoelastic studies and the second and third aspect by studies conducted in the laboratory on small size specimens (Bunting, 1911; Evens & Pomeroy, 1961; Gaddy, 1956; Greenland et al, 1941; Steart 1954). The size of the specimens tested in the laboratory has been limited to a few inches and the results obtained have been extrapolated by large factors, sometimes several hundred times the largest specimen tested. In these tests much consideration has not been given to

Jan 1, 1971

By Juhani Pulkkinen, Pekka Lappalainen

Preplaced cable bolts - fully grouted old hoisting cables or stress relieved steel strands - have been used succesfully to pre- reinforce ore contact zones and pillars in sublevel stoping at Outo- kumpu Oy mines for ten years. The purpose is to make open stoping methods possible even in "poor&apos;&apos; conditions and to decrease waste rock dilution. Since 1971 more than 120 km cable bolting has been done, and plans for this year in five mines amount to 33 km. In order to understand the function of cable bolt, pull-out tests have been done both in the laboratory and in situ. Bond strength between cable and cement is highly dependent on cable structure and cable surface dirtiness. Steel cables with steel core and rough surface structure have highest bond strength ( 6 MP~). A cable bolt is a friction bolt. After losing its peak bond strength - after starting to move - a cable bolt still has a high loading capacity due to the friction caused by the uneven surface of the cable. Cable bolting is done before actual stoping from existing drifts, sublevel drifts, e.g. or from special bolting drifts. In general stress relieved steel strands are used; 2 x 15.2 mm dia per hole. FEM or BEM calculation is utilized in cable bolting design. Bolts 2 are in fan shape, 10 m ... 50 m long and are spaced 1/20 m ... 1/50 m2 at stope walls. Pretensioning of cable is not needed, when bolting is done before rock deformations. Bolting costs vary between 0.3 USD ... 1.0 USD/ore ton. In the beginning only manual cable installing technique bras used. Now bolting can be done as fully mechanized with the developed cable bolting machine; i.e. drilling of the hole, installing and cutting of cables and grouting of hole.

Jan 1, 1983

By Young C. Kim, Francis Martino, Ish Chopra

For the past two and one-half years, various emission control strategies were jointly developed by the University of Arizona and the Homer City Owners to com- ply with the clean air requirements at its Homer City Power Plant. Some of the available options for the SO2 emission control by the Homer City Owners were:l)cleaning of run-of-mine coal,2) scheduling of mining operations at its captive mines, 3) blending the captive mine coal with externally purchased low sulfur coa1,and 4) placing a partial FGD system. This paper describes two specific emission control strategies developed and implemented. These are: 1) production scheduling at the mining face to minimize sulfur variability, and 2) external purchasing of low sulfur coal for further blending. The main objective of this paper is to share our experiences on implementing the developed strategies. This paper emphasizesthe need for proper mine planning on a short-term basis, if the power plant is to meet the desired objective.

Jan 1, 1983

By William M. Baldwin, T. S. Howald, A. W. Ross

EXPLORATORY WORK THE related subjects of preferred orientation, directionality in physical properties, and earing tendencies of wrought metal [ ] strip have attracted the attention of metallurgists to such an extent that in the past 20 years hundreds of researches have been published on this one general problem. The anisotropy of tensile strength and elongation have been exhaustively studied in their relationship to the occurrence of ears in cups drawn from strips-20.29 and, to a lesser extent, yield strength7,11,17 and stress-strain curves" have been investigated. Despite the tremendous fund of knowledge thus accrued, no simple quantitative correlation of directionality and earing tendencies has yet been found. In a sense, this is not surprising. The formation of ears in a drawn cup clearly is a special phase of the general study of metal flow; in particular (as will be brought out in the course of this paper), ears are due to anistropy in the rates of deformation of the metal in the radial, circumferential, and "thickness" directions of the original blank. It would be difficult to effect a correlation between earing tendency and a property that may be completely independent of the flow of metal, or at best related to metal flow in an exceedingly complex fashion. Yet, it is this correlation that has been attempted; tensile strength and elongation are attributes of metal rupture, a phenomenon that has quite admirably been shown to be distinct from the phenomenon of metal flow,21 while yield strength and stress-strain

Jan 1, 1945

By Fred A. Anderson, George B. Wallace, Edward J. Slebir

As the reservoir rises behind an arch dam, it presses the arch into the canyon walls and valley floor. To compute the stresses, deflections, and arch reactions, it is necessary to know how much the rock deforms under the combined loads of gravity, temperature, and water. Under sustained loading for a period of time, the rock continues to deform or "creep" slightly, causing changes in the stresses and shape of the arch. Under reduced loading, the elastic arch tends to resume its unstrained position and it is important to know that the rock will follow it and maintain tight contact along the abutment. It is, therefore, important to know the "set" characteristic of the rock. Past attempts to define load-deformation properties of rock, including creep and set, have largely l been limited to laboratory test of intact cores and in-situ jacking test utilizing bearing plates 2 to 3 ft in diam. In both cases, a uniaxial load has been applied to a volume of rock too small to fully reflect the influence of cracks, joint systems, foliation, and other inherent weaknesses within the rock mass. This chapter describes a large radial jacking test which more nearly duplicates the action of an arch dam by penetrating the load deep into the rock mass, bringing into play more of the factors which contribute to prototype deformation. Results obtained from the large radial test are compared with those from smaller uniaxial test. DESCRIPTION OF RADIAL TEST The radial jacking test described in this chapter was performed in an adit off of an exploratory tunnel driven into a proposed dam abutment

Jan 1, 1972

By C. A. Pierce

Studies of roof and floor movement are of interest to those actively engaged in mining. This is especially true in the case of an entirely new area where there is no precedent for guidance. The potash deposit being mined is in the southeast corner of New Mexico, about 20 miles east of Carlsbad. The deposit was formed by the land-locked, shallow, Permian Sea that extended through parts of western Texas, Oklahoma, Kansas, southeastern Colorado, and eastern New Mexico. The saline deposits vary from 500 to 4000 ft. thick. Neither of the companies operating in this area has delimited its commercial ore bodies. As all production so far has been from Federal and State leases, the Department of the Interior and the State of New Mexico have a direct interest in the development and extraction of these ore horizons. The ore is composed of an intimate mechanical mixture of sylvite (potassium chloride) and halite (sodium chloride). It lies generally in a horizontal bed varying from 5 to 12 ft, in thickness, and has a cover of approximately 1000 ft., consisting of about 500 ft. of salt beds and 500 ft. of sediments. The immediate mine roof for several feet is principally salt with some potash and clayey material. The next 500 ft. above, from the standpoint of structure, may be considered rock salt with a few inter-bedded potash members. The upper 500 ft. is of sedimentary (Permian and Triassic) origin and contains several water-bearing formations with flows varying from 10 to 500 gal. per minute. This water intensifies the interest in convergence problems as the ore and surrounding formations are water soluble. Potash salt (sylvite) and rock salt (halite) are plastic minerals. Plasticity is defined as a "property of solids by virtue of which they hold their shape permanently under the action of small shearing stresses but are readily deformed, worked, or molded under larger stresse."1

Jan 1, 1942