Search Documents

By Akira Usui, Sayuri Kubo, Satoshi Tokeshi, Shingo Kato, Katsuhiko Suzuki, Teruhiko Kashiwabara

"INTRODUCTIONFerromanganese (Fe-Mn) crusts are a kind of marine chemical sediment composed of Fe and Mn oxy-hydroxides as well as small amounts of clastic sediments, which are ubiquitously found on the surface of slopes of seamounts and oceanic plateaus at depths from 900 to 5500 meters below sea level (mbsl). Fe-Mn crusts contain extremely high concentrations of useful minor metals such as Co, Ni, Te, REEs, and thus are expected as submarine mineral resources. Also, Fe-Mn crusts record the change of chemical compositions of seawater during last several tens million years, which allow us to obtain clues to clarify the paleoenvironmental conditions at the time of its deposition. However, occurrence, chemical compositions, microbial community and growth patterns of ferromanganese crusts are yet fully understood. Hence, a comprehensive study on the genesis of ferromanganese crusts, such as growth rates and enrichment processes of elements, is required to better understand their resource potential as well as their applications to paleoceanographic study.Based on the resource potential of ferro-manganese crust, the project entitled “Next- Generation Technology for Ocean Resources Exploration” was launched as one of the governmental projects to develop the exploration technology based on the scientific research on the submarine resources such as hydrothermal deposits (e.g., a poster by Kawada et al.), ferro-manganese crusts. We have made several research cruise to seamounts in the north-western Pacific such as Takuyo-Daigo and Takuyo-Daisan seamounts (Fig. 1) ."

Jan 1, 2017

By Henk van Muijen

From an interesting and intriguing scientific research topic, deep sea mining has altered into an interesting mining prospect over the last years. Ten years ago most of the focus was on geological investigations, searching for typical deep sea deposits and getting answers on where we can find them and how these deposits were formed. At this moment we know much more about the interesting deposit possibilities and with our quest for minerals, metals and other materials to feed global economic growth, answers as to the technical and economic feasibility to mine these deposits are sought. This is not a new phenomenon as we already witnessed such question late 1970?s and early 1980?s. Most of the focus was on mining manganese nodules and brines in the Red Sea driven by the report of the Club of Rome that predicted shortages in near future at that time. Development went different, but later in the 1990?s a rival of interest could be noticed for mining deep sea deposits.

Jan 1, 2010

By Wiebe Boomsma

INTRODUCTION Starting in February 2014, 19 partners from EU industry, research institutions and academia joined forces and formed the Blue Mining consortium. In the following four years, they have set out to work on the development of deep sea mining technology, looking into exploration, identification, economic assessment and vertical transport systems for the mining of seafloor massive sulphides and polymetallic nodules. In the beginning 2018 this research & development project has come to an end. The Blue Mining project was one of the first EU subsidised projects embracing the TRL system. This system describes a method of de-risking technology using a simple 9-step approach. This method requires experimental testing in laboratory and relevant environments to be able to reach the higher levels (TRL>5) This paper will discuss the progress in development of the vertical transport system, with a focus on the performed experimental work. This paper will discuss three topics: • Booster station technology • Riser dynamics • Vertical hydraulic transport process. BOOSTER STATION TECHNOLOGY Deep knowledge of transport processes is a prerequisite for a clog free vertical transport One of the key technologies in the VTS is the booster station. The centrifugal pump booster station concept is developed in Blue Mining, it consists of two centrifugal pumps and multiple valves, assembled in member-type frame. Deep sea conditions pose special requirements on all components due to the extreme pressures at large water depths. In the Blue Mining project a Deep Sea Special Motor has been developed and tested in laboratory and in the field. The motor is completely filled, lubricated and cooled using seawater due to its unique open structure, furthermore it does not require any lubricants minimizing the environmental pressure of the motor. The motor is first extensively tested in a laboratory, after these tests have been concluded successfully, the motor is shipped to Norway where it has been successfully tested for more than 100 hours at 425 meter water depth.

Jan 1, 2018

By Hyun Sub Kim

Subsea mineral deposit exploration aboard the R/V Onnuri was performed along the northern Central Indian Ridge (CIR) between 8°S and 17°S in December 2009 ~ January 2010 (09IR Leg01 and 09IR Leg02) and December 2010~ January 2011 (10IR Leg01, 10IR Leg02, and 10IR Leg03). Final goal of the expedition for the first Korean research cruise on mid ocean ridge system is to define seafloor massive sulfide ore bodies through searching the active hydrothermal vents nearby spreading centers as well as to elucidate the nature of spreading segments of the northern CIR area where no systematic survey have been operated before by mapping and sampling of volcanic rocks. The preliminary result of topographical interpretations of bathymetry clearly display ocean core complex between 10°S and 11°S. The ocean core complex is featured by topographic-high area with corrugated surface. Lineaments of corrugations of the ocean core complex are clearly perpendicular to abyssal hill direction which is triggered by symmetric-normal faults. Ocean core complex are favor for hydrothermal fluid path because of the long-lived faults. In further exploration, more detailed examination, including systematic CTD casting and tows, need to narrow down actual venting site around ocean core complex. Magnetic field survey is able to estimate the location of hydrothermal vents with the properties that high temperature of hydrothermal fluids over Curie-point can cause thermal demagnetization. In magnetization intensity map, most of low magnetization zones are located at the nodal point over the ridge axis and the ocean core complex.

Jan 1, 2011

By R. K. H. Falconer, Wood R. A., C. D. Castle

"A deposit of phosphate nodules is on the Chatham Rise approximately 450 kilometres to the east of Christchurch in the South Island of New Zealand. The deposit contains sufficient rock phosphate to supply New Zealand’s phosphate fertilizer needs for at least 20 years. It was first investigated commercially 50 years ago by Global Marine, followed by JBL Minerals in the early 1970’s. NZ and German government research and industry groups then took it up again, with major field programs in 1978 and in the early 1980s.Due to difficult global and local economic conditions the project ground to a halt in 2004.The project was resurrected in 2007 when Chatham Rock Phosphate applied for a prospecting licence. This was granted in 2010 and a successful subsequent mining permit approval followed in 2013. The initial application for the separately required environmental permit was declined in February 2015.A lot has changed then and the significance of this will be the subject of the presentation. Chatham Rock Phosphate is confident that an environmental permit will be successfully granted next time."

Jan 1, 2017

By Simon McDonald

The Neptune Group was established in 1999 to apply for exploration permits within New Zealand’s 200nm EEZ. These applications were to investigate and commercialise hydrothermal Seafloor Massive Sulphide (SMS) deposits identified by international researchers and to locate others. SMS are volcanically related seafloor accumulations of copper, lead and zinc with high levels of gold and silver. Neptune has three granted exploration licenses within the New Zealand EEZ and has application in other jurisdictions. Neptune undertook the world’s first commercial drilling exploration work of SMS in December of 2005.

Aug 24, 2006

By Seung-Kyu Son, Michael T. Chandler, Youngtak Ko, Gyuha Hwang

Over the past decade, sea-floor hydrothermal vent fields have been studied by many researchers because of their commercial potential of mineral resources and the origins of Earth’s life. Approximately 300 of these are reported as massive sulfide deposits near the mid-ocean ridge, most of which are located in the Atlantic and Pacific ridges. However, only fourteen deposits have been identified in the Indian mid-ocean ridges. The Central Indian Ridge (CIR) between 8°S and 12°S is composed of three segments with a slow full- spreading rate of 33-37 mm/yr. The hydrothermal activity at the slow-spreading center can be generated along the ridge axis attended by volcanism or along the tectonic features, such as oceanic core complexes (OCCs). OCC is an exposed mantle rocks composed of peridotite and ultramafic rocks uplifted through long-lived detachment fault processes which can also lead to extensive hydrothermal circulation near the slow-spreading center. Therefore, the identification of OCC’s properties will be an important indicator for finding the sea-floor hydrothermal vents. To study hydrothermal activity of the CIR, Korea Institute of Ocean Science and Technology (KIOST) have conducted expeditions using R/V Onnuri over four years (2009-2011, 2017). High-resolution bathymetry and backscatter data was obtained during expeditions using multibeam echo system of EM120 in 2009-2011 and deep-tow side-scan sonar system of IMI-30, which has more higher resolution than EM120, in 2017. In this study, we use these high-quality data for constraining location and size of OCC. We also analyze the geophysical and morphotectonic characteristics of OCC gathering high-resolution bathymetric map and backscatter image.

Jan 1, 2018

By Richard Mills

Autonomous Underwater Vehicles (AUVs) are proven technologies used across market segments for survey, exploration and environmental monitoring tasks. When coupled with other autonomous platforms or sensor packages AUVs become part of an holistic system approach to exploration and environmental assessment and monitoring. Recent developments have seen AUVs deployed remotely with instantaneous access to data via the cloud. Our goal is to deliver the capabilities of each of these elements and present a cohesive data set with automated processing tools over a cloud based interface. nmanned Technology AUVs The HUGIN AUV System is the most commercially successful AUV ever built. Operated as a single vehicle, or as part of a swarm, HUGIN’s area coverage rate is unrivalled. Equipped with a comprehensive sensor package including Kongsberg’s synthetic aperture sonar, it collects a data set. Some of these data are processed in-mission to enable operators to readily access it when the vehicle is recovered. HUGIN is well suited to mining survey and exploration. Capable of reaching 6000 metre depths and conducting missions greater than 60 hours, HUGIN collects seabed sonar imagery, sub-bottom profiles, laser and camera images plus environmental data, with sensors running concurrently.

Jan 1, 2018

By Sebastian Ernst Volkmann, Felix Lehnen

"INTRODUCTIONWhile today’s mine planning of land-based ore deposits follows methods, which are well established, mining standards for the deep-sea have not established. Having gained a basic understanding of geological settings, there is still a lack of tools and methods to assess and plan future mining projects in the deep-sea. In the framework of the “Blue Mining” research project (2014-2018) technologies and methods for the exploration and exploitation of deep-sea minerals are developed that will bring deep-sea mining a step closer. The “Blue Mining” project receives funding from the European Commission (EC; Framework Programme 7; GA No. 604500) and addresses all aspects of the value chain in the field of deep-sea mining. The project philosophy is that deep-sea mining is planned and executed in the most responsible manner: Ensuring societal benefits and profitability at acceptable resource utilization and lowest possible environmental footprint (Volkmann 2014).Inspired by the high-tech farming industry, a concept to mine seafloor manganese nodules (SMnN) was developed. Mining is considered to be similar to the potato harvest on land (Figure 1), which involves mining a field partitioned into long, narrow strips (Volkmann and Lehnen 2017). The proposed mining system composes of one mining support vessel (MSV), one or two self-propelled, crawler-type seafloor mining tools SMT(s) and different types of underwater vehicles. The MSV follows the mining route of the SMT(s), picking up the about potato-sized nodules from the seafloor. The ore is pre-processed in situ and is lifted on board of the MSV, where the ore is dewatered and loaded onto bulk carriers for transport to the purchaser. Processing and refining of ore is not subject of “Blue Mining” research."

Jan 1, 2017

By P. A. Rona

The first hydrothermal mineral deposits found at a seafloor spreading center were discovered in the Red Sea by multi-national research vessels between 1963 and 1965. At that time, the deposits were considered a special case related to continental rifting and an early stage of opening of an ocean basin. Since that time, examples of almost all major varieties of volcanic- and sediment-hosted hydrothermal deposits associated with basaltic rocks in the geologic record have been found at present spreading centers. Review of over 100 hydrothermal mineral occurrences presently known at oceanic ridges and rifts indicates that a range of deposit sizes from small to large (> 1 x 106 tonnes) occurs at all seafloor spreading rates. However, larger deposits but fewer per unit length of spreading axis appear to form at slow- than at intermediate- to fast-spreading centers based on available data. Larger deposits are more common in sediment-hosted than in volcanic-hosted settings regardless of spreading rate. A spectrum of hydrothermal deposit varieties (stratiform, stockwork and disseminated sulfides; various forms of sulfate, carbonate, silicate, oxide and hydroxide deposits) occurs in almost all of the tectonic settings. High-intensity, ore-forming, subseafloor, hydrothermal convection systems that conserve heat and mass and concentrate hydrothermal precipitates are extremely localized by anomalous physical and chemical conditions relative to nearly ubiquitous low-intensity hydrothermal activity at and flanking seafloor spreading axes at all spreading rates. Two distinct shapes of volcanic-hosted

Jan 1, 1989

By Dilip Sarangdhar

"SeaTech Solutions International (S) Pte Ltd, Singapore are the designers of world’s first seabed mining ship. The ship is now under construction and expected to be delivered next year. The Deep Sea Mining industry is eagerly awaiting commencement of her seabed mining operations and the success of this story will go a far way in accelerating investment in Deep Sea Mining and hopefully we should see many such projects take off and many such ships launched in the near future.Based on own experiences SeaTech discusses in this paper, various important issues that need to be considered for design of such Deep Sea Mining ships, the challenges faced and possible solutions to address them.From a ship designers’ perspective, there are not many direct previous references available, the seabed mining methods and associated equipment are also a new technology & products are still developing, there is no standard method and equipment for processing of mineral ore onboard, and above all there is the huge challenge of loading, storage and discharge of ore cargo efficiently in the confines spaces. Associated with the uncertainties of such issues is the uncertainty of weight, space, power, services and maintenance requirements, which can vary through the design and construction period and put the initial ship design at huge risk. Sufficient design margins need to be provided and a constant & strict control is absolutely necessary to ensure that the budget on each technical aspect is not exceeded. The local strength of the vessel particularly needs to be robust to take ultra-large loads due to huge equipment and their lifting /handling equipment/winches and tall mining process modules."

Jan 1, 2017

Recent focus by terrestrial mineral explorers (and investors) on cobalt has increasingly highlighted the future critical need for this metal, with new-age batteries being the primary utilisation. We present an overview of the world’s current terrestrial cobalt resources and put this in perspective of currently known seabed resources, particularly polymetallic nodule and crust deposits. We focus on comparison of the key exploration, development and exploitation risks for such deposits, and provide a framework for financial evaluation and appraisal.

Jan 1, 2018

By William D. Siapno

Approximately a century lapsed between the time nodules were discovered and the beginning of commercial exploration in the early 1960's. A period of rapid development of exploration and mining technology ensued over most of the next two decades. In recent years advancement has been sharply curtailed. This paper discusses the constraints inhibiting nodule mining and some developments that could aid in overcoming certain difficulties. Specifically, the greatest single constraint is economic. With few exceptions mineral markets are badly depressed. Present projections for development of nodules are for the late 1990's or beyond. However, the U.S. awarded exploration licenses in mid-1984 and more recently boundaries of license areas have been released. These conditions promote cooperation among organizations engaged in deep ocean mining. Survey data, and where appropriate some data products, have been exchanged between various consortia. The present hiatus in at-sea activities provides an excellent opportunity to investigate the best means to proceed. This period of quiescence offers a rare moment to distill the meaningful values of an era of hectic activity to permit more efficient development in the future.

Jan 1, 1985

By Chris Castle

The Chatham Rise is a submarine topographic feature lying off the east coast of New Zealand between the South Island and the Chatham Islands and within New Zealand?s jurisdiction. The Chatham Rise hosts economically significant deposits of rock phosphate and other potentially valuable minerals. The deposits comprise nodules lying on, or just below the surface of the seabed in shallow waters. Rock phosphate is an essential ingredient of fertilizer and can be applied directly to pasture. There is a realistic opportunity the phosphate deposits could supply New Zealand?s agricultural requirements for an estimated 30-year period at current rates of consumption.

Jan 1, 2011

By Eleanor Martin

An examination of the draft Exploitation Regulations from an investor’s perspective. We will look at the commercial requirements of the investment community (debt and equity) in order to provide funding to a deepsea mining project, and contrast this with the position put forward in the draft Exploitation Regulations. We will then recommend suggested amendments to the Exploitation Regulations to assist future investment on this growing industry.

Jan 1, 2018

By D. Cronan

Both the S.W. Pacific and Caribbean island arcs are host to submarine hydrothermal mineral deposits, the former more so than the latter. In the S.W. Pacific, the whole gamut of such deposits occurs on the sea floor, sulphides, silicates, Fe and Mn oxides, whereas during the limited studies to date in the Caribbean only hydrothermal Mn oxides have been found to occur on the sea floor there in any abundance. Comparisons between the respective Mn oxides are thus the most fruitful at the present limited stage of our knowledge of Caribbean submarine hydrothermalism. Southwest Pacific hydrothermal ferromanganese oxides and their possible relationships to underlying sulphide mineralisation or bedrock anomalies (the geochemical window concept) has been a fruitful field of research in recent years. Certain element enrichments in crusts may be indicative of underlying mineralisation (Rogers et al. 2001). However, more recent studies on buried hydrothermal crusts in the S.W. Pacific (Cronan et al. 2002) have shown there to have been postdepositional diagenetic uptake of elements in them, and thus these elements cannot be used with any confidence in geochemical exploration for buried sulphide deposits unless sediment involvement can be eliminated.

Jan 1, 2002

By Brian Parsons

In June of 2013, Odyssey Marine Exploration conducted sea trials of the newly installed SeaBat 7150 full-ocean multibeam sonar system on the M/V Dorado Discovery over the Fierberling Guyot in the northeast Pacific Ocean. Fieberling Guyot is located approximately 990 kilometers west of San Diego, California and it rises abruptly from the deep ocean floor (~4300 meters) to a minimum depth of approximately 438 meters. The SeaBat 7150 operates at two distinct frequencies, 24 kHz (shallow to 3000 meters) and 12 kHz (full-ocean depth greater than 2000 meters). Onboard operational data are managed by a suite of state-of-the-art software. A SQL Server 2012 database provides the highly specific management and visualization tools as ArcGIS 10, Micromine 2013, and Geobank 2013 database. The 7150 is mounted on a gondola one meter lower than on previous system and greatly reduces bubble interference. The 7150 generates 880 beams

Sep 14, 2011

By James R. Hein

Ferromanganese oxyhydroxide crusts (Fe-Mn crusts) precipitate out of cold ambient seawater onto hard-rock surfaces at water depths of about 600-4000 m throughout the ocean basins. Fe-Mn crusts concentrate most elements in the Periodic Table above their mean concentration in the earth's crust (continental plus oceanic crust), except for the major rock-forming oxides and also notably gold and palladium. Tellurium is concentrated greater than any other element relative to its earth's crust mean (about 1 ppb). For example, mean contents of the elements heretofore known to be most enriched in crusts, Mo, Tl, Sb, Co, Mn, Bi, As, Se, and Pb are enriched 100 to 1000 times over their earth's crust mean, whereas the mean Te content in Fe-Mn crusts is enriched about 50,000 times. However, the distribution of Te in the earth is poorly known. Estimates of the mean Te content of the earth's crust range from 0.36 to 10 ppb, with 1 ppb being the most commonly cited mean content (compilations in Levinson, 1974 and Govett, 1983). If we took the highest estimate of 10 ppb, then Te would be enriched in Fe-Mn crusts five times more than the next most enriched element, or 5000 times the estimated maximum mean earth's crust.

Jan 1, 2000

By Natalia Konstantinova, Kira Mizell, James R. Hein, Georgy Cherkashov, Amy Gartman, Mariah Mikesell

"Two types of metallic deposits have been found in the deep Arctic Ocean: Hydrothermal Fe, Cu, and Zn sulfide deposits form along Gakkel Ridge in the Eurasia Basin and associated ridges between Greenland and Europe; and iron and manganese oxide crusts (Fe-Mn crusts) and nodules, precipitated from seawater onto rock surfaces in the Amerasia Basin, contain many rare metals of economic interest. Fe-Mn crusts and nodules collected in the Amerasia Basin during 2008, 2009, and 2012 cruises on the USCGC icebreaker Healy are characterized by unique mineral and chemical compositions, very high Fe/Mn ratios, fast growth rates, and other unique characteristics compared to those formed elsewhere in the global ocean. These characteristics reflect temporal and spatial variations in geological, oceanographic, and climatic conditions in the Arctic Ocean and surrounding continents over the past ~15 Myr.RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONSDiscrimination diagrams show that the crusts and nodules found in the Amerasia Basin north of Alaska are hydrogenetic. However, the mineralogy is not typical for hydrogenetic Fe-Mn crusts and nodules, which usually include only amorphous Fe oxyhydroxide and ?-MnO2 (vernadite). The Arctic samples also include the Mn oxides birnessite and 10Å manganates (todorokite, buserite, asbolane), and the Fe minerals also include goethite, lepidocrocite, feroxyhyte, and ferrihydrite. This mineralogy reflects formation under lower oxygen conditions than typical for samples formed elsewhere.The Amerasia Basin crusts have a unique chemical composition compared with crusts from other areas of the global ocean. The key difference is the high Fe contents relative to Mn contents, which determines the types of trace metals hosted by the Fe-Mn oxide phases, and their concentrations. The high Fe/Mn ratios reflect the expansive continental shelves (>50% of the Arctic Ocean) and upper slopes that support redox cycling and release of Fe and other metals to bottom waters, and to the large fluvial input from North America and Siberia. Brine formation on the shelves and currents promote the distribution of the metals throughout the Amerasia Basin, including the deep basins."

Jan 1, 2017

By Chris Roper

The Gavia Autonomous Underwater Vehicle is a two-man portable AUV that is capable of performing seafloor surveys in water depths to 2000 meters. The standard survey sensor suite includes a dual frequency side scan sonar and high resolution digital camera. Additional survey sensors are currently being incorporated into the Gavia AUV, include Sub Bottom sonar, Swath Bathymetry sonar and Multi Beam sonar. The modular design of the Gavia AUV allows the end user to quickly incorporate new sensors including client developed propriety sensors.

Jan 1, 2005