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Discussion of the paper of CHARLES T. MALCOLMSON, presented at the New York meeting, February, 1915, and printed in Bulletin No. 98, February, 1915, pp. 271 to 289. E. W. PARKER, Washington, D. C.-The briquet or boulet, or coalette (whatever name is used) has come to stay as a part of the fuel supply, particularly for domestic purposes. During the past winter I have had some personal experience with the use of boulets made from anthracite coal. All of this winter I have used boulets in my furnacee and in my grate at my home in Washington. One reason for doing so is that we get the boulets at a price considerably cheaper than the prepared sizes of anthracite coal. The fuel has proved entirely satisfactory. One advantage possessed by the boulet is its absolutely uniform size, which makes the ventilation of the firebed practically perfect. The boulets burn until entirely consumed. There is not, even in an open grate fire, if the fire is kept constantly going, any unconsumed fuel passing through the grate bars. The boulets hold their form until entirely consumed and then break away into a clean white ash, with absolutely no clinker. That in itself is a particularly favorable recommendation to the housekeeper. Mr. Malcolmson has mentioned the fact that notwithstanding the smokeless character of anthracite, the boulets made from it emit smoke. The emission of smoke is due to the coal-tar pitch used as a binder. This is particularly noticeable if the fireman is somewhat careless, or wants to save labor, and feeds too much of the fuel on the fire at one time, cooling it down and thus causing an unnecessary amount of smoke. The smoke lasts but a short time, however, and if the fire is fed a little more frequently, with a small quantity of fuel at one time, the smoke is reduced to a minimum. I believe it will not be long before some of our engineers will have overcome the objectionable smoke; and will produce either from anthracite or from the so-called smokeless New River and Pocahontas semi-bituminous coals, a briquet which will be as smokeless as anthracite for all. practical purposes.

Jan 5, 1915

By Ralph Wilcox

THE diamond drilling of certain characters of unstable rock forma-tion, as, for example, the copper-bearing schists of the Miami district in Arizona, is rendered most difficult by what is known as " caving" of the sides of the drill holes. As this caving is very greatly increased by the action of flowing water, it occurred to me, after experiencing a great deal of difficulty with caving in diamond-drill holes which I was drilling for the Miami Copper Co., that if I could substitute air for water, much of the caving-with resultant difficulties, such as decreased speed of sinking and increased consumption. of diamonds-would be overcome. After some experimenting, I found that it was perfectly practicable to substitute air for the water; forcing the air down the hollow rotating rods in the same manner as is done with water, the air passing out around the bit, which is thus cooled, and ascending on the outside of the rods to the collar of the hole, carrying the borings in just as satisfactory a manner as had been done by the water, but without the accompanying destruction or caving of the sides of the drill holes such as had been so generally experienced with the water. When water was encountered in the drilling this water was forced up to the collar just as it would have been had water been used in the .drilling, but with the correspondingly decreased flow there was relatively less washing or caving of the sides of the drill holes. The only change necessary in the arrangement of the drill is that a cross instead of a tee is used at the collar of the hole. A tightly woven jute bag is attached to one arm of the cross, for collecting and filtering the sample; and when drilling in dry ground a jet of water is attached to the opposite arm of the cross, to collect the dust and wash down the sample into the bag. The rods rotate through a stuffing box attached to the upper opening of the cross. The distention of the jute bag by the issuing air indicates the operating conditions as sufficiently as did the flow of water when using water in the drill hole.

Jan 10, 1913

PRESIDENT DOWLING'S ? ADDRESS I feel that it is a great honor to be invited to reply to this toast on behalf of the Canadian Mining Institute. I wish to thank you for your very cordial reception of the toast and for the sentiments expressed in your invitation to the Institute to cooperate in a series of joint meetings. It is an earnest of the mutual regard which the peoples of the two countries have for each other. We have been allies in a very great war and the feelings of good-will engendered by that alliance will survive, I believe, through the strenuous times of peace. The other nations of the alliance had through many changes in history, fought each other and for each other and had thereby gained a clear conception of the social aims and moral character of their peoples. With this knowledge came mutual trust-the one element necessary for united action or lasting agreement. On this continent the two peoples are drawn together by bonds of a common origin and, largely, a common language. No war has been necessary to force declarations of national aims on which to base terms of amity and now our peoples who had studied the arts of peace together have together passed through fire-drawn into the conflict by a like horror at the sacrilege of the crucifixion of the rights of humanity. Their courage and manhood has been tested at Ypres and Chateau Thiery by the great assayer war, and, together, with thankful hearts we see the triumph of right over night and better than ever know that we have the same conception of the government of the people for the people. We are met to celebrate the close of the association of our brethren it the front in the fight for freedom for the world-a freedom that to us hems natural but which to the majority of the allied nations is a heritage derived from the protest made by the American colonies against German ideas of government of which remnants had until then survived in Great Britain.

Jan 4, 1919

By Chandler Morse

RENEWABLE VS. NONRENEWABLE NATURAL RESOURCES Nonrenewable resources, such as minerals, are the inevitable center of attention in discussions of depletion and exhaustion. Nevertheless, it may well be proper to regard some nonrenewable resources as not subject to exhaustion, and renewable resources may sometimes be treated as if they were finite stocks. Thus, the availability of nonrenewable resources is not and probably never will be known completely Chap. 2.5A, and therefore is not subject to firm predictions concerning exhaustibility. Moreover, because exploration and discovery are more or less continuous processes it is often appropriate to regard mineral supplies as flows, and to treat the estimated reserves as working capital, an inventory, continually depleted by use and augmented by discoveries.23 The aggregate economically exploitable stocks of a given mineral are seldom estimated (or estimatable) with precision, as Chap. 2.5A shows, and even when they are, forecasts concerning years of remaining life can be and often are falsified by changes in one or more of the multidimensional conditions of supply and demand; or the productive services formerly derived from an exhausted stock may continue to provided without material impairment by one or more substitutes b Conversely, the renewable resources are all subject to depletion when the rate of use exceeds the natural or induced rate of replenishment, and cases of exhaustion or near exhaustion, as through soil erosion, overcuttmg of forest lands, and overfishing, are rather common c Where exhaustion is a clear possibility the resource may either be exploited on a consciously adopted "sustainable yield" basis or be treated as an exhausting asset." In some cases, conscious treatment

Jan 1, 1976

By Aureal T. Cross

THIS paper is a review of the published literature on research in coal geology, principally exclusive of resource studies, which appeared or became available during 1950 and the latter part of 1949. This report is not to be construed as being complete. The papers referred to in the bibliography are those among many more, which were read either in full or in abstract. Undoubtedly other papers were published' which either escaped the author's notice or were not available to him. Those which were seen in abstract only (about one fourth of those listed) were not available in time for the inclusion of more than a notice. An outline of all papers listed in the bibliography has been arranged by subjects and reasonable subdivisions with some papers cited under more than one subject. Most papers are indexed according to the principal subject of discussion or research only as to an unusual or noteworthy section of the entire report. There will likely be some disagreement as to the quality or merit of some of the papers selected and the specialist may be supercritical of the outline or organization of papers in his field. It may be that attention has occasionally been drawn to papers reporting old information or conclusions of questionable value. Conferences and Meetings One of the best indications of the growing interest in coal geology problems in the United States is the increasing number of times this- field has been the focus of attention at conferences and meetings. Notable among these are the joint meeting of the Society of Economic Geologists and the Geological Society of America at El Paso, November 1949, at which the principal thesis was concerned with low rank carbonaceous fuel deposits, especially of western United States. Among the papers given which are already available were those presented by Barghoorn,16 Parry,180 Roe,153 and Parks.162 At the annual meeting of the Botanical Society of America in New York, December 1949, a joint meeting of the Paleobotanical and Microbiological Sections was held for which a symposium on Microbiology in Relation to the Geologic Accumulation of Organic Complexes was 'organized. Publication of the six papers presented by Ralph G. H. Siu, Elso S. Barghoorn, Irving Breger, Claude E. ZoBell, James M. Schopf, and A. C. Thayson is anticipated. At the regular meetings of the Paleobotanical Section at the same time, several other papers of interest reported on coal ball studies, partial coalification of petrified wood, and floras. In Chicago, April 1950, a symposium on Applied Paleobotany was held by the Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists in conjunction with the American Association of Petroleum Geologists. The five papers presented at this meeting dealt with the use of Paleozoic plant microfossils for stratigraphic work, J: M. Schopf, Devonian-Mississippian fossils of the black shales, Aureal T. Cross, Mesozoic plants of stratigraphic value, Th. Just, plant microfossils of the Tertiary, L. R. Wilson, and studies of the Brandon lignite, Elso S. Barghoorn. Early publication of these in the Journal of Paleontology is expected. The Nova Scotia Research Foundation and the Nova Scotia Dept. of Mines sponsored an excellent 3-day conference in June 1950, which, dealt with several aspects of coal geology. Papers on coal classification, P. A. Hacquenbard, structure and sedimentation problems in Nova Scotia, T. B. Haites, new techniques of thermal analysis, W. L. Whitehead, geochemical investigations of Nova Scotia coals, Irving Breger, the role of fossil plant spores in coal correlation and the stratigraphy of the coal-bearing strata of the Appalachian Region, Aureal T. Cross, were given. Some discussions of these papers by those in attendance were recorded, and the entire proceedings is being prepared for publication. In September 1950, an unusual 3-day field conference was held by the Ohio and West Virginia Geological Surveys under the sponsorship of the Coal Geology Committee. This study of the stratigraphy sedimentation, and nomenclature of the Upper Pennsylvanian and Permian coal-bearing strata of southeastern Ohio, southwestern Pennsylvania, and northern West Virginia .was augmented by two discussions on associated rocks (clays and shales) and stratigraphic nomenclature at Wheeling, and Morgantown, West Va. An extensive guidebook was prepared, and transcriptions of the Morgantown meeting were made. As a follow-up of the September field conference, a round-table discussion 'was held on this general topic at a special open meeting of the Coal Research Committee in conjunction with the November meeting of the Geological Society in Washington. Short prepared statements to invite discussion were given on each of several topics by L. M. Cline, Carl O.

Jan 1, 1952

J. M. HARTMAN, Philadelphia, Pa.: Mr. Fackenthal can remember some queer things that occurred at Durham, Pa., Aug. 3, 1876, while he was superintendent. The furnace was working stiff, i.e., blast-pressure 10 to 11 pounds, which was high pressure for those days. With this pressure there was some circulation through the stock. At 9 p.m., flushed cinder. After flushing, air was thrown off' for a moment to " bot up "; the keeper turned the lever and threw on air just as the scaffold dropped, which eased up the pressure to 4¼ pounds. The air-receiver is twice as large at Durham as at other places. The air from this receiver, added to the two seven-foot blowers, gave an extra large volume, which, rushing into the furnace, fired the finely-divided carbon, causing an explosion that threw part of the stock in the furnace out into the open air, threw up the bell-and-hopper with the tunnel-head plates, and gave off' a large volume of carbondust. The bell-and-hopper going up first, the stock followed, and, striking the bell-and-hopper, was deflected in a shower over the cast-house roof, breaking the slates. Sitting at the corner of the engine-house at the time, the stock pelted me, when I ran around the corner to get rid of it. Remembering there were two men at the furnace-top, I shut down the engines, and, running to the top, found them sitting in the hoist-house enjoying the fire-works. The explanation of this explosion is simple. There is in the blast-furnace a bed of fuel extending up, say, 16 to 18 feet above the tuyeres; in this bed of fuel some stray pieces of limestone are found, and a few pieces of unreduced ore; but, generally speaking, it is all fuel. On this bed of fuel is the zone of fusion. In this zone the descending stock is liquefied, except the fuel; the iron, melting, drops out of the ore, and the gangue unites with lime, forming cinder. The iron falls in the form of shot, and, with the cinder, trickles

Jan 1, 1899

By J. D. Livingston, H. E. Cline

Cu-Pb alloys in the vicinity of the monotectic composition have been directionally solidified under a high temperature gradient at rates up to 2 X l0-' cm per sec. Over a wide range of compositions, high growth rates yield a composite structure consisting of continuous rods of lead in a copper matrix. This range of compositions increases with increasing growth rate, in agreement with arguments based on the relative velocities of composite growth and the growth of copper dendrites or lead drops. The breakdown of the composite structure at slow growth rates is explained in terms of the relative interphase surface energies. The observed interrod spacings of the composite structure are large compared with the predictions of the Jackson-Hunt equations of eutectic growth. ThE directional solidification of many eutectic alloys produces fine composite structures of parallel lamellae or rods. There has been considerable interest not only in the fundamentals of this two-phase solidification process,'-3 but also in the interesting physical properties produced by such regular and aniso-tropic microstructures. Composite structures can be grown only over a limited range of composition, beyond which coarse primary dendrites of one phase appear. In organic eutec-tics, this composition range of composite structures has been shown to increase with increasing growth rate.7"10 These results were explained in terms of the relative velocities of composite (coupled) growth and dendritic growth. Although similar arguments should apply to metallic eutectics,11-13 suitable experimental results are lacking. In contrast to the work on eutectics, the directional solidification of monotectic alloys has received little attention. (The monotectic reaction is similar to the eutectic reaction, except that one of the resulting phases is a liquid, which subsequently solidifies in a separate reaction at a lower temperature.) Directional solidification of some monotectic alloys'4715 yields regular rodlike microstructures, whereas in other cases macroscopic separation of solid and liquid phases occurs.16 chadwick17 rationalized these results in terms of the probable relative magnitudes of the various interphase surface energies. A recent study of chill-cast Cu-Pb alloys18 revealed a fine rodlike microstructure in alloys near the monotectic composition. It was decided to investigate the directional solidification of such alloys, and to determine the range of composition and growth conditions yielding composite structures. The Cu-Pb system is convenient for such a study, both because it is simple metallurgically, with no compound formation and negligible solid solubilities, and because its basic properties are well-documented. Recent literature on the Cu-Pb system includes studies of bulk thermo-dynamic properties,'g surface energies,20"21 densi-ties,25 and diffusion constants.a6 A similar study of the directional solidification of Cu-Pb alloys was recently undertaken, independently, by Kamio and Oya." EXPERIMENTAL Alloys were prepared by melting 99.999 pct Cu and 99.999 pct Pb in a graphite crucible, stirring well, and pouring into a cold graphite mold. Rods 0.175 in. in diam were machined from the ingots. Alloy compositions studied ranged from 25 to 55 wt pct Pb. Samples were placed in graphite crucibles 5 in. long with 4 in. OD and 0.035-in. walls. They were melted under flowing argon in a vertical, two-zone. platinum -wound furnace. A voltage stabilizer was used to minimize fluctuations in input power. The narrow specimen diameter minimized convection. Directional solidification was achieved by driving the crucible downward into a +-in. hole in a water-cooled copper toroid. The toroid was located immediately below the narrow end zone of the furnace. The end zone was separately powered to maintain high local temperature. Therefore a high temperature gradient (approximately 300 deg per cm) was maintained in the specimen throughout the run. The crucible motion was screw-driven. and a wide range of drive speeds were available. The limited rate of heat removal caused a thermal lag in the specimens at high drive rates. However. temperature-time curves from thermocouples imbedded in a representative sample indicated that the average growth rate still approximately equaled the drive rate. Although the specimens were initially homogeneous, melting and re solidification redistributed the lead. producing composition variations of several percent along the specimen length. (During melting. lead melted first and ran down the sample surface. Rapid freezing tended to reproduce the resulting composition gr~dient, but slow freezing did not because a slow-moving interface tended to reject lead. as discussed later.) To determine local composition. ;-g samples were cut from regions exhibiting various microstructures and were chemically analyzed for lead content. Micrographs were taken on as-polished or lightly etched surfaces. Three-dimensional structure of the lead network was viewed with a scanning electron microscope after removal of some of the copper matrix with nitric acid. RESULTS Several different microstructures are observed, depending on composition and drive rate. Because melting and resolidification produced composition gradients, results are best presented in t&ms of final local composition, rather than initial or average composition. The ranges of local compositions and drive

Jan 1, 1970

By C. A. Herbert, C. M. Young

WithIn the past few years, considerable development has been made in the coal-mining industry in Illinois and Indiana and it is the purpose of the authors to record its most important phases. Perhaps the two most striking features are the entry into the producing fields of certain large consumers of coal and the magnitude of some of the new operations. Mines are now being equipped by the Chicago & Northwestern R. R., the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy R. R., the Standard Oil Co., of Indiana, and the Union Electric Light & Power Co. of St. Louis. Besides, the U. S. Steel Corpn. has increased its coal-mining activities by commencing operations on its large holdings northeast of Benton, Franklin CO., Ill. Until recent years, the supply of coal has commonly been adequate and prices have generally been favorable, especially to large consumers, as the magnitude of their purchases enabled them to obtain satisfactory quotations from producers. In fact, most consumers of coal have believed that they could buy their fuel more satisfactorily in the open market than they could produce it themselves. The entry of the United States into the war was accompanied by various disarrangements of industrial conditions, and a demand for coal in excess of the supply seemed likely to be experienced for an indefinite period. Under these circumstances it seemed that the greatest assurance of a supply of fuel was its production by the operation of mines. In the case of the Chicago & Northwestern R. R. and the U. S. Steel Corpn. the production of coal has been carried on for many years with satisfactory results, but the C. B. & Q. R. R., the Union Electric Light & Power Co. and the Standard Oil Co. of Indiana had not been producers of coal, at least in this district. Apparently the most impressive feature of the newest mines is their capacity, for in some cases it is planned that production shall be in the neighborhood of 1000 tons per hr. There are mines now in this field having nearly that output, but these were not planned for such output; in fact, when the shafts were sunk and the machinery installed it was generally supposed that the daily outputs would be only in the neighborhood of 4000 to 5000 tons. Incidentally, there has risen

Jan 1, 1920

By S. N. Kesten, Richard Murphy, A. H. Land, W. F. James

Introduction—by W. F. James and A. H. Lang This paper describes the geology and present state of development of uranium and thorium deposits in Canada. It is expected that this information will be added to that now being assembled from available American and British data to provide a background for engineers and others who may be called upon in the future to examine or search for radioactive deposits. Some generaliza- tions regarding the Canadian deposits are included, but many of these are necessarily tentative. The information contained in the paper is up to date for the end of 1948. The information contained in this paper has been derived from many sources. Much of it is from the records of the Canadian government-owned Eldorado Mining and Refining (1944) Limited and from examinations of government and private properties made by officers of the Geological Survey of Canada. Some information on privately-owned properties has been quoted from other sources mentioned in the text. The information has been assembled by W. F. James of Eldorado Mining and Refining (1944) Limited and A. H. Lang of the Geological Survey of Canada, who have written the sections for which they are credited. The description of the Eldorado mine is based on reports by Richard Murphy, formerly chief geologist for Eldorado; the report by Mr. Murphy was published previously by the Canadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy,' to whom the writers are indebted for permission to repub-lish. The section dealing with the geology of and development work in the Goldfields area, where Eldorado has important holdings, is by S. N. Kesten, field geologist for Eldorado. The geological diagram of the Goldfields area (fig. 2) was kindly supplied by A. M. Christie of the Geological Survey of Can-

Jan 1, 1951

By W. F. James, Richard Murphy, S. N. Kesten, A. H. Land

Introduction—by W. F. James and A. H. Lang This paper describes the geology and present state of development of uranium and thorium deposits in Canada. It is expected that this information will be added to that now being assembled from available American and British data to provide a background for engineers and others who may be called upon in the future to examine or search for radioactive deposits. Some generaliza- tions regarding the Canadian deposits are included, but many of these are necessarily tentative. The information contained in the paper is up to date for the end of 1948. The information contained in this paper has been derived from many sources. Much of it is from the records of the Canadian government-owned Eldorado Mining and Refining (1944) Limited and from examinations of government and private properties made by officers of the Geological Survey of Canada. Some information on privately-owned properties has been quoted from other sources mentioned in the text. The information has been assembled by W. F. James of Eldorado Mining and Refining (1944) Limited and A. H. Lang of the Geological Survey of Canada, who have written the sections for which they are credited. The description of the Eldorado mine is based on reports by Richard Murphy, formerly chief geologist for Eldorado; the report by Mr. Murphy was published previously by the Canadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy,' to whom the writers are indebted for permission to repub-lish. The section dealing with the geology of and development work in the Goldfields area, where Eldorado has important holdings, is by S. N. Kesten, field geologist for Eldorado. The geological diagram of the Goldfields area (fig. 2) was kindly supplied by A. M. Christie of the Geological Survey of Can-

Jan 1, 1951

By Aureal T. Cross

THIS paper is a review of the published literature on research in coal geology, principally exclusive of resource studies, which appeared or became available during 1950 and the latter part of 1949. This report is not to be construed as being complete. The papers referred to in the bibliography are those among many more, which were read either in full or in abstract. Undoubtedly other papers were published which either escaped the author's notice or were not available to him. Those which were seen in abstract only (about one fourth of those listed) were not available in time for the inclusion of more than a notice. An outline of all papers listed in the bibliography has been arranged by subjects and reasonable subdivisions with some papers cited under more than one subject. Most papers are indexed according to the principal subject of discussion or research only as to an unusual or noteworthy section of the entire report. There will likely be some disagreement as to the quality or merit of some of the papers selected and the specialist may be supercritical of the outline or organization of papers in his field. It may be that attention has occasionally been drawn to papers reporting old information or conclusions of questionable value. Conferences and Meetings One of the best indications of the growing interest in coal geology problems in the United States is the increasing number of times this field has been the focus of attention at conferences and meetings. Notable among these are the joint meeting of the Society of Economic Geologists and the Geological Society of America at El Paso, November 1949, at which the principal thesis was concerned with low rank carbonaceous fuel deposits, especially of western United States. Among the papers given which are already available were those presented by Barghoorn,'" Parry? Roe? and Parks."' At the annual meeting of the Botanical Society of America in New York, December 1949, a joint meeting of the Paleobotanical and Microbiological Sections was held for which a symposium on Microbiology in Relation to the Geologic Accumulation of Organic Complexes was organized. Publication of the six papers presented by Ralph G. H. Siu, Elso S. Barghoorn, Irving Breger, Claude E. ZoBell, James M. Schopf, and A. C. Thayson is anticipated. At the regular meetings of the Paleobotanical Section at the same time, several other papers of interest reported on coal ball studies, partial coalification of petrified wood, and floras. In Chicago, April 1950, a symposium on Applied Paleobotany was held by the Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists in conjunction with the American Association of Petroleum Geologists. The five papers presented at this meeting dealt with the use of Paleozoic plant microfossils for stratigraphic work, J. M. Schopf, Devonian-Missis-sippian fossils of the black shales, Aureal T. Cross, Mesozoic plants of stratigraphic value, Th. Just, plant microfossils of the Tertiary, L. R. Wilson, and studies of the Brandon lignite, Elso S. Barghoorn. Early publication of these in the Journal of Paleontology is expected. The Nova Scotia Research Foundation and the Nova Scotia Dept. of Mines sponsored an excellent 3-day conference in June 1950, which dealt with several aspects of coal geology. Papers on coal classification, P. A. Hacquenbard, structure and sedimentation problems in Nova Scotia, T. B. Haites, new techniques of thermal analysis, W. L. White-head, geochemical investigations of Nova Scotia coals, Irving Breger, the role of fossil plant spores in coal correlation and the stratigraphy of the coal-bearing strata of the Appalachian Region, Aureal T. Cross, were given. Some discussions of these papers by those in attendance were recorded, and the entire proceedings is being prepared for publication. In September 1950, an unusual 3-day field conference was held by the Ohio and West Virginia Geological Surveys under the sponsorship of the Coal Geology Committee. This study of the stratigraphy, sedimentation, and nomenclature of the Upper Pennsylvanian and Permian coal-bearing strata of southeastern Ohio, southwestern Pennsylvania, and northern West Virginia was augmented by two discussions on associated rocks (clays and shales) and stratigraphic nomenclature at Wheeling and Morgantown, West Va. An extensive guidebook was prepared, and transcriptions of the Morgantown meeting were made. As a follow-up of the September field conference, a round-table discussion was held on this general topic at a special open meeting of the Coal Research Committee in conjunction with the November meeting of the Geological Society in Washington. Short prepared statements to invite discussion were given on each of several topics by L. M. Cline, Carl 0.

Jan 1, 1953

By Aureal T. Cross

THIS paper is a review of the published literature on research in coal geology, principally exclusive of resource studies, which appeared or became available during 1950 and the latter part of 1949. This report is not to be construed as being complete. The papers referred to in the bibliography are those among many more, which were read either in full or in abstract. Undoubtedly other papers were published which either escaped the author's notice or were not available to him. Those which were seen in abstract only (about one fourth of those listed) were not available in time for the inclusion of more than a notice. An outline of all papers listed in the bibliography has been arranged by subjects and reasonable subdivisions with some papers cited under more than one subject. Most papers are indexed according to the principal subject of discussion or research only as to an unusual or noteworthy section of the entire report. There will likely be some disagreement as to the quality or merit of some of the papers selected and the specialist may be supercritical of the outline or organization of papers in his field. It may be that attention has occasionally been drawn to papers reporting old information or conclusions of questionable value. Conferences and Meetings One of the best indications of the growing interest in coal geology problems in the United States is the increasing number of times this field has been the focus of attention at conferences and meetings. Notable among these are the joint meeting of the Society of Economic Geologists and the Geological Society of America at El Paso, November 1949, at which the principal thesis was concerned with low rank carbonaceous fuel deposits, especially of western United States. Among the papers given which are already available were those presented by Barghoorn,'" Parry? Roe? and Parks."' At the annual meeting of the Botanical Society of America in New York, December 1949, a joint meeting of the Paleobotanical and Microbiological Sections was held for which a symposium on Microbiology in Relation to the Geologic Accumulation of Organic Complexes was organized. Publication of the six papers presented by Ralph G. H. Siu, Elso S. Barghoorn, Irving Breger, Claude E. ZoBell, James M. Schopf, and A. C. Thayson is anticipated. At the regular meetings of the Paleobotanical Section at the same time, several other papers of interest reported on coal ball studies, partial coalification of petrified wood, and floras. In Chicago, April 1950, a symposium on Applied Paleobotany was held by the Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists in conjunction with the American Association of Petroleum Geologists. The five papers presented at this meeting dealt with the use of Paleozoic plant microfossils for stratigraphic work, J. M. Schopf, Devonian-Missis-sippian fossils of the black shales, Aureal T. Cross, Mesozoic plants of stratigraphic value, Th. Just, plant microfossils of the Tertiary, L. R. Wilson, and studies of the Brandon lignite, Elso S. Barghoorn. Early publication of these in the Journal of Paleontology is expected. The Nova Scotia Research Foundation and the Nova Scotia Dept. of Mines sponsored an excellent 3-day conference in June 1950, which dealt with several aspects of coal geology. Papers on coal classification, P. A. Hacquenbard, structure and sedimentation problems in Nova Scotia, T. B. Haites, new techniques of thermal analysis, W. L. White-head, geochemical investigations of Nova Scotia coals, Irving Breger, the role of fossil plant spores in coal correlation and the stratigraphy of the coal-bearing strata of the Appalachian Region, Aureal T. Cross, were given. Some discussions of these papers by those in attendance were recorded, and the entire proceedings is being prepared for publication. In September 1950, an unusual 3-day field conference was held by the Ohio and West Virginia Geological Surveys under the sponsorship of the Coal Geology Committee. This study of the stratigraphy, sedimentation, and nomenclature of the Upper Pennsylvanian and Permian coal-bearing strata of southeastern Ohio, southwestern Pennsylvania, and northern West Virginia was augmented by two discussions on associated rocks (clays and shales) and stratigraphic nomenclature at Wheeling and Morgantown, West Va. An extensive guidebook was prepared, and transcriptions of the Morgantown meeting were made. As a follow-up of the September field conference, a round-table discussion was held on this general topic at a special open meeting of the Coal Research Committee in conjunction with the November meeting of the Geological Society in Washington. Short prepared statements to invite discussion were given on each of several topics by L. M. Cline, Carl 0.

Jan 1, 1953

By C. E. Brown, D. C. Helms, O. W. Shimer

The early history and progress of anthracite stripping, from the first known operation at Summit Hill in 1821 through 1917, was covered in 1917 in a paper by J. B. Warriner,1 then chief engineer, now president of the Lehigh Navigation Coal Co., and stripping methods between 1917 and 1931 were the subject of a paper in 1931 by H. H. Otto,2 of the Hudson Coal Company. . The present paper is confined to methods used today on pitching beds in the western middle and southern anthracite fields. The anthracite industry, not unlike other large industries, had been affected for more than a decade by the adverse economic conditions of the country. High development and operating costs and the competition of other fuels caused some collieries to be closed temporarily, while others were permanently abandoned. In order to obtain a larger tonnage at a lower development cost, a larger stripping program was put into effect by many companies. In 1932, stripping operations accounted for 3½ million tons, or 7 per cent of the total anthracite production of the year, and in the next 10 years this increased until more than double that amount, or over 14 per cent of the total production, was from stripping operations. These figures represent the total production of the entire anthracite region; unfortunately, the figures have not been separated from the different fields. There are some operations in the southern and middle western fields where the tonnage obtained from stripping amounts to more than 30 per cent of the total colliery production. Stripping operations on pitching beds present difficult problems. Owing to the various geological formations, a different situation is encountered in nearly every stripping pit; and because of the proximity of an overlying bed, it is very often necessary to load the entire overburden into trucks and haul it out of the pit to the dump area, although back filling and casting is done whenever possible. Beds in the areas described in this paper pitch from 20" to 90 and some are on the invert in many sharp folds and faults. Planning The more successful strippings have had adequate engineering analysis. Some work is being done without much preliminary planning, but many strippings would have failed completely if close supervision by the engineering department had not been . maintained. Locations of stripping areas are determined as follows: I. By constructing cross sections over the areas and drilling sufficient diamond-drill or well drill holes to study the strata and to determine the location, thickness

Jan 1, 1944

By C. K. Leith

At the outset I would like to make it clear that I do not enter this discussion in a controversial spirit, but in an attempt to contribute something helpful to an understanding of a difficult problem. I have too high regard for the- sterling quality of the work of the men who have studied this subject in detail to offer anything in the way of essential contradiction to their statements of fact. Difference of opinion arises from differing valuation of the possible alternative hypothesis which these facts suggest. Some degree of recrystallization in limestone contact zones has been recognized by many investigators. Earlier investigators, for the most part, assigned an important, if not the most important, ro1e to recrystallization in development of these zones. With the growing recognition of introduction of ores and gangue materials into the contact zone from igneous rocks through the medium of primary magmatic solutions, there has been a tendency to ascribe to this process most, if not all, of the chemical and mineralogical characteristics of the contact zonc. This has involved a correspondingly diminished emphasis on recrystallization of substances already there as a factor in the process, and in some cases even the complete elimination of this hypothesis. From detailed study of a few contacts, casual observation of others, and a general familiarity with the literature, some of us have been led in recent years to raisc the question whether the pendulum has not swung too far away from recrystallization toward direct introduction from igneous sources, and to argue for more recognition of the part played by recrysta11ization.l The inevitable sequence has been that those of us who have .taken this view have been charged, at least by inference, with emphasizing recrystallization to the total exclusion of the alternative process. Scientists, like other men, like to classify and pigeon-hole views under simple and definite designations, leaving out qualifications which would tend to make the classification more difficult to state. This has made the problem seem more definite and simple, but has tended to obscure the fact that the disagreement is primarily not one relating to essential facts, but one of

Jan 1, 1915

By C. W. Clark, J. H. Schloen

Two papers have been written previously concerning operations at the Montreal East plant of Canadian Copper Refiners Limited. The first one,1 written in 1932, described silver-refinery operations at the time for producing silver and gold bullion from tankhouse anode slimes; the second,2 published in 1933, consisted of a description of the entire plant. Since publication of these papers the refinery has become the world's largest producer of refined selenium. The first selenium was produced in August 1934. Tellurium production on a commercial scale followed in October 1935. This paper will deal with selenium and tellurium production and also with present operations in the silver refinery. Blister cakes from Hudson Bay Mining and Smelting Co., Flin Flon, Manitoba, and commercial anodes from Noranda Mines Limited, Noranda, Quebec, are refined at Montreal East. Both these bullions have unusually high gold, selenium and tellurium content. The average assay of raw slimes produced from domestic and Noranda anodes is about 40 per cent Cu, 3600 oz. per ton Ag, 800 oz. per ton Au, 22 per cent Se and 3.7 per cent Te. EARLY SILVER-REFINERY OPERATIONS From the start of operations in 1931 until July 1934, the raw slimes were oxidize-roasted at 700° F. in a Nichols-Herreshoff furnace, acid¬leached with tankhouse discarded foul electrolyte (20 per cent H2SO4), filtered and charged directly to the doré furnace for refining to doré metal. This is the customary method for treating tankhouse anode slimes but was not suitable at the Montreal East plant because of the high selenium and tellurium content of our slimes. In the acid-leaching process about 50 per cent of the selenium and tellurium in the roasted slimes was dissolved in the electrolyte. These elements were recovered with the copper as a sludge in a small electrolytic

Jan 1, 1938

By Charles W. Henderson

THE influence of mineral production on the development of the western United States has been profound. From 1848 to 1860, there was only gold production, the effect of silver began in 1860, and from then on both had a powerful influence. Lead production started in 1863, copper in 1863, and zinc in 1885, but was small until 1898. Gold alone was therefore the stimulus of the early settlement and exploration of the Western States.. But mineral deposits caused neither acquisition of territory nor determination of boundary lines. Arizona, California, Nevada, New Mexico, and parts of Utah, Wyoming, and Colorado were formally acquired from Mexico fourteen days after the actual date of the discovery (January 19, 1848)1.2 of gold at Sutters Mill, near the present town of Coloma, California (a discovery which, with the immediate new discoveries, aroused the world several months later) ; but the acquisition was by treaty (under negotiation for some time but signed February 2, 1848)3 in settlement of a war involving the boundaries of the grassy plains of Texas, an area at that time not known to contain any metals, and to date found to have but few metal deposits.4 The international boundary at 49º latitude for the far northwest states was determined by causes other than mineral deposits.

Jan 1, 1933

By Campbell M. Hunter

Petroleum is found in almost every province in Persia. On the northern frontier, along the southern shore of the Caspian Sea, it is found near Enzelli and Shakhtesar and gas at Khoremabad. Oil is also found at Gumish Tepe, northwest of Astrabad, on the southeastern shore of the Caspian Sea. Further inland, to the south of Astrabad, oil is found at Dehahkuh-i-balae, also on the margin of the Khorasan desert at Semnan, 115 mi. (35 m.) east of Teheran. Along the western frontier, from northwest to southeast, oil is encountered at Ouschachi, north of Lake Urumieh; in the province of Azerbaijan, at Zohab, Khanikin, and other places in. the district of Kormanshah in the province of Ardelan. Further south, in the province of Luristan, oil is found east of Mendeli and in the Pusht-i-kuh districts. Considerable quantities of oil are also obtained from Schuster, Maidan-i-Naphtun, Ram-Hormuz, Beheban, which are almost on a straight line, running northwest and southeast along the foothills of the Bakhtiari Mountains. At Ahwaz, in the province of Arabistan, oil has been found along another range of hills whose axis also lies in a northwest-southeast direction. In the Fars province, boring for oil has taken place at Daliki, and indications of oil are found at Kheri, Fasa, Darab, and other places. A gas show is also recorded at Kuhi-Sung-Atush in this province, 30 mi. (48 km.) east of Darab. In the south of Persia, oil is encountered on Qishm Island, also at Ahmedi and other places north of Bunder Abbas. On the southeastern frontier, oil is found on the Sarhad range of hills. Thus, oil indications have been noted over a distance of approximately 1100 mi. along the western and 700 mi. along the northern frontiers of Persia. History The first working of oil in Persia of which there is any record took place at Kir-ab-US, Susiana, now known as Kiab, about 57 mi. northwest of Schuster. Herodotus (about B. C. 450) reported a well near Ardericca that produced three different substances; namely, asphalt, salt, and oil. The oil, which was black and had a strong smell, was called Rhadamance by the Persians.

Jan 1, 1921

JESSE L. JONES,* Pittsburgh, Pa.-I would like to ask Miss Erskine if down-draft has been used in any of the foundries where heavy fumes have to be removed, instead of the overhead draft.? L. -ERSKINE.-The system of overhead draft to remove heavy fumes has been very much more successful. The entire efforts of the New Jersey Department of Labor in regard to stabilizing conditions in the foundry are the result of the physical examination of the foundryman himself on first-hand information as to the prevalence of the minor ailments and the bad timekeeping that naturally accompanies them. These ailments are a factor in not only increasing the labor turnover but in increasing the percentage of bad work as well. The physical exertion of the foundryman himself is of course an important factor. In certain standard shops the amount of energy expended runs from 11 to 13 tons of foot-pounds of energy a day. In certain shops on piece work, I found a record of the energy expended per day to run as high as 22 tons. In one shop, during the war period, the management established a bonus system, and the men increased their output from 60 to 100 molds a day. The result was an increase of some 60 per cent. in output, and an increase of 400 per cent. in defective castings. The question of the physical exertion in the unsanitary foundries, of course, is very much complicated by other factors, for which reason the department has devoted a good deal of attention to estimating what is a reasonable exertion in a sanitary, well ventilated foundry. We have met certain physical difficulties in the brass foundries that the iron foundries did not have. All that information is available through our Bureau of Industrial Information. The question of the physical energy exerted by the molder is found to have a very distinct bearing on the question of contracts, for the possibility of increasing production is balanced by the extra overhead involved. JESSE L. JONES.-I would like to ask if any evidence has been noticed of carbon-monoxid poisoning among the employees of the foundries.

Jan 4, 1919

By Fred Bond

This paper is a continuation of two earlier papers,1,2 and presents new data on the grindability of various ores and other materials-the results of several years of intermittent research work on the nature of grinding and interpretation of test results. It is divided into five parts: 1. The tabulated results of several hundred grindability tests on a wide variety of ores. 2. A method of correcting screen analyses and calculating from them the surface and other properties. 3. A description of a. new method of measuring the "surface energy" of in ore by pendulum impact tests. 4. Test results. 5. A general discussion of the test results and their application to grinding problems.

Jan 1, 1938

By N. J. Grant, Per Knudsen, J. T. Blucher

The fatigue behavior of three SAP alloys was studied in ternzs of strain rate and temperature, at high strains. The k values in the modified Manson-Coffin equation, Nk4 = C, were less than 0.5 under all test conditions, and change with strain amplitude for the lower-oxide alloys at about 2 pct strain. Lowest k values were near 0.25. Strain rate had no effect on life at 80 F, but had an increasingly greater effect with increasing temperature above 500". Life decreased with decreasing strain rate, above 500"F, and with increasing temperature. Ductility at fracture in a tension test was indicated to be an important factor in determining 1ife in these big+-strain tests with the SAP alloys. INEVITABLY, in the course of mechanical tests at elevated temperatures, particularly if significant time at temperature is involved, there are large changes in structure; these changes make it difficult to relate behavior patterns over ranges of temperature or strain rates at high temperatures. Such changes are to be expetted in low cycle fatigue at low strain rates and high temperatures. Accordingly, it was of great interest to examine the low cycle fatigue behavior of SAP / an aluminum oxide dispersion-strengthened aluminum, a type of alloy which had shown unusual structure stability to temperatures as high as 1000" to 1150°F and resisted recrys-tallization essentially to the melting temperature.'j3 Since the matrix is pure aluminum, there are no complications of averaging, agglomeration, or phase solution. It was also desirable to check the Manson-Coffin equation4?' for the SAP alloys, namely N~E~ = , where ep is the total plastic strain amplitude, k and C are constants, and N is the number of cycles to failure. Here, too, was an opportunity to check the roles of temperature and strain rate with a very stable material. Tavernelli and coffin6 had concluded that k had a value of about 0.5 for many alloys and C was equal to ~/2, where E is the fracture ductility determined from a static tension test. The results were obtained from low-temperature tests where creep and diffusion processes are unimportant. Manson7 found k = 0.6 fitted his data reasonably well; however, in later analyses of a large amount of low cycle fatigue data generated at room temperat~re@"~ he found k to vary from 0.6 for short lives to 0.21 for long-life fatigue tests. In the latter studies,89g Manson separated the total strain range into elastic and plastic components when he found that k was influenced by the nature of the strain. The use of EL (total strain) instead of EP (total plastic strain)4'5 makes a difference in the resultant k value. The ratio of changes with temperature, strain rate, and strain; further, there are the problems in the determination of the elastic strain. Based on these considerations, and the improved fit of points in a plot of by Wells and Sullivan,' is also utilized in these studies. Anderson and wahl,14 using commercial 1100 aluminum, and Blucher and Grant,15 using 99.99 pct pure aluminum, found an increase in life with increasing test temperature. Anderson and Wahl were the first to report low cycle fatigue results from SAP materials. With increasing temperature, the role of strain rate becomes more important. In this regard, care must be exercised to differentiate between frequency (wherein strain rate may vary from zero to a maximum in each cycle, sinusoidally, for example), and constant strain rate, as used in the present study, in a saw-tooth type cycle; in the latter case, the frequency is not specified but can easily be calculated from the strain and strain rate data. It has generally been found that life in low cycle fatigue tests decreases with decreasing frequency16 or with decreasing strain rate at elevated temperatures.15 Coffin,17 reviewing Eckel's work,16 also reported that k increased with decreasing frequency for acid lead, yielding values from 4.0 at a frequency fo 6.6 cycles Per day to 1-46 at a frequency of 7440 cycles per day; the value of k decreased to 0.58 at a frequency of 2.38 x lo6 cycles per day. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE Three SAP alloys, of two nominal compositions, were tested. Alcoa supplied XAP 005 as 2-in.-diam extruded bar, of nominal composition A1-7 wt pct A1203. The Danish Atomic Energy Commission supplied SAP 930 (A1-7 wt ~ct Ala3) and SAP 865 (A1-13 wt pct Al&) manufactured by Swiss Aluminium Ltd., in the form Of $-in.-diam extruded rod. Metallographic comparison of the structures of XAP 005 and SAP 930 showed the former to have a more uniform oxide distribution. Button-head specimens were machined in the longitudinal direction of the bar with 0.4 in. gage length by 0.2 in. diameter, with a fillet radius of j-B in. After machining, the specimens were electropolished in a 1 to 4 mixture of perchloric acid to methanol to remove all machining marks. All test bars were in the as-extruded condition. The fatigue tests were performed on a hydraulically activated, axial strain machine, with complete reversal of strain.15 Test conditions were:

Jan 1, 1969