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By W. F. Cloud

The data and information compiled under Part I of this report are the results of experiments performed in the petroleum engineering laboratory under the supervision of W. F. Cloud, Associate Professor of Petroleum Engineering and William Schriever, Professor of Physics, University of Oklahoma. Problems Being Studied Most of the time has been spent in trying to determine the rate of flow and pressure gradient in a 4-in. flow tube 10 ft. long, which was packed with sand of various grain sizes. To date, only two kinds of sand have been packed in this tube: 60 to 80-mesh Canadian river sand, 60 to 80-mesh and 80 to 100-mesh Simpson sand. The original intention was to follow the same procedure and use the same types of crude under identical saturation pressures of both air and gas, as well as unsaturated (dead) oil, flowing the various crudes through several different sizes of both Canadian river and Simpson (Wilcox) sands, but lack of time has prevented such an intensive study of the problem. Some additional time has been spent flowing saturated and unsaturated crudes, similar to those used in the 4-in. tube, through 1-in. tubes, one of which was 2 ft. long and one 5 ft. long. The results obtained have been checked against those obtained by using the 4-in. tube, to obtain the relation of diameter and length of tube to rate of flow in similar sands. Laboratory Equipment Saturation Tank.—A heavy steel cylindrical saturation tank, capacity about 42 gal. was mounted on a platform of bricks, then a galvanized tin temperature bath was built around the saturation tank. This contained

Jan 1, 1930

By C. B. Dudley

In October, 1878, and again in February, 1881, I had the honor to make public, through the medium of the American Institute of Mining Engineers, the results of an extended study of steel rails which had been in service, and which mere taken for the purpose from the tracks of the Pennsylvania Railroad Company. These studies appeared in three papers. In the first of these papers the question. what kind of steel is least liable to fracture or disintegration in the track, was the principal one considered. In the second paper the question discussed was, does the power of steel to resist wear increase with the hardness ? In the third paper the relation between wear and the chemical and physical properties of the metal was the principal point considered. The general results arrived at, or the cooclusions reached, were, as follows: 1. That a mild steel is less liable to fracture, and if properly made, less liable to crushing or disintegration in the track than a harder steel. 2. That the wearing-power of steel in rails not only does not increase as hardness increases, but, on the contrary, diminishes; or, in other words, that a mild steel gives less loss of metal under the same service than a hard steel. These conclusions may be briefly stated in a single sentence—namely, in rails mild steel is not only less liable to fracture and disintegration in the track, but it also gives longer life, or wears more slowly under the same traffic; than harder steel. It is perhaps hardly necessary to add that by mild steel is meant steel

Jan 1, 1891

By F. E. Calkins

THE following presentation of the more important accumulated facts and probabilities involved in copper ore deposition is based on my experience in examination work and study of the extensive litera-ture of the subject; to make personal mention of all sources of information would require the naming of a small army of able geologists and other investigators who have contributed to, building up the science. I have tried to present the salient features of the subject in logical order and condensed form, and to point out the relative importance of processes involved. Doubt-less many geologists could suggest some changes and many additions. ORIGINAL SOURCE The original source of all copper was in the earth's interior; it has been brought to the outer part of the earth, within reach of man, in three ways: (1) By intrusions and flows of basic igneous rocks containing copper in minute quantities, presumably as silicate or sulfide. No orebodies have been formed by this method. (2) As segregations within intrusive igneous rocks, the copper minerals having solidified at the same time as the rock itself. The few deposits known to have been formed in this manner have been of little or no importance. The oft quoted Sudbury nickel-copper deposits are now known to belong to the class following. (3) By gaseous or liquid aqueous emanations from ,large deep-seated masses of intrusive molten rock. These emanations, or mineral solutions, ascended through zones of connected openings in the earth's crust and dropped their load at points far above their source. Deposits formed in this manner were the primary source of nearly all, if not all, of the world's copper production.

Jan 10, 1923

By V. H. Gottschalk

THE solubility of gases in metals has been of interest since Graham's time in 1866, but, although the subject was actively studied by iron and steel metallurgists during the eighties, the era of painstaking laboratory investigation begins in 1907 with the publication of Sieverts'1 thesis on the occlusion and diffusion of gases in metals. Since then, Sieverts has worked almost continuously in this field, and his views on the subject are the prevailing ones at the present time.2 Probably the most important result obtained by Sieverts, and frequently verified since by other observers, is the discovery that at a constant temperature the solubility of almost all gases in both the liquid and solid state of most of the metals is proportional to the square root of the pressure (for pressure above 100 mm.). The obvious explanation of this fact is that the gas dissolves as atoms and not as molecules, although it has been pointed out a number of times, first by Donnan and Shawl in connection with their work on the solubility of oxygen in silver at 1075° C., that the formation and solution of a compound of the metal and gas would also be indicated by a variation of the solubility with the square or higher root of the pressure. Sieverts4 himself raised the question whether the usual explanation (i. e., that the gas dissolves as atoms) may not be wrong, when he found that the square root law held also for the solubility of sulfur dioxide in molten copper; in which case dissociation into simpler molecules or atoms does not take place. Stubbs5 subsequently showed that Sieverts and Krumbhaar's "constant" for sulfur

Jan 1, 1932

By Arvid E. Nissen, Knox Taylor, John H. Hall

Some months ago one of the authors was asked to write a paper on the heat treatment of steel castings that would be more comprehensive than other matter he had published; this is an attempt to present in condensed form the results of experimental work and actual practice carried out for the most part in 1907, 1908, and 1909. It is not a laboratory research and the work done was carried out for the express purpose of putting in practice the processes discovered as fast as possible. Most of the tests are the result of commercial practice and not of bars annealed in our laboratory; most of the micrographs were made for our own records and not for publication. Certain of the micrographs, therefore, are not as clear as we may wish but they were good enough for our purpose at the time they were made. The tests and micrographs are selected from several thousands in our files. All of these micrographs are magnified 60 diameters. These experiments were conducted almost entirely on steel made in a 3-ton bottom-blown converter, and most of the steel illustrated analyzes about 0.05 in phosphorus and sulfur. Unfortunately, a certain number of specimens are shown of which we do not have the complete analysis, but in most cases in which the phosphorus and sulfur vary much from the figure just given that fact is noted. For purposes of comparison, we have included a certain number of micrographs and tests of steel made in the electric furnace, some of which were from specimens made in other shops and some in our own shop, and some tests of acid open-hearth and tropenas steel. A brief examination of the tests in Table 1 shows that certain treatments of, for instance, 0.30 per cent, carbon steel are not represented by any test data. Had this been a laboratory research, this information would undoubtedly have been furnished, but as this work was done for commercial purposes the omissions are due to the fact that, at the time the work was done, we saw no advantage in trying every composition of steel with each treatment discussed in the paper.

Jan 1, 1920

By Bruno Nordberg

HOISTING is one of the earliest endeavors of man with machinery, for hoisting was probably used by the early Egyptians. Treadmills were used for general hoisting until early in the nineteenth century and it was a short step only to attach a Watt steam engine to the rope drum of a hoist. One of the earliest steam hoists was built for a coal mine at Frisne, near Valenciennes, France. It was a remarkable piece of engineering created by James Watt in 1811, using a wooden drum on a vertical shaft. This followed the crude hoist by Holtzhausen in 1803, which used a drum of wood on a horizontal shaft.1 In this country there were examples of crude mine hoists, which have been developed into the efficient machines in use today. African and Australian mines show examples of both extremes, and have an array of fine hoisting equipment exemplified in those built by British manufacturers. The influence of both English and American engineering in hoisting is interestingly evident in Canada. The information available to the writer does not reveal this to be true of South Africa, although American-built hoists have been furnished. Mining camps develop their own style of equipment, adapted to local conditions. For instance, the Butte mining district adheres to the straight drum with friction clutches, because of the great number of levels from which hoisting is done or to which men and material are lowered and the necessity for hoisting or lowering unbalanced. The north Michi-gan copper country uses both straight and cylindroconical drums and hoists continually in balance, so that the drums are not clutched to the main driving shaft. The Joplin mining district, Missouri, has its own peculiar small hoists. Other individual mines or localities in which a number of mines have been developed show individualisticc types of hoists, depending upon their particular problems. In each instance, however, the particular problem must be carefully analyzed, as conditions are seldom so near the same that a number of identical hoists can be used to advantage.

Jan 1, 1940

By B. J. Kochanowsky

The primary use of a portable crusher, i.e., a crusher mounted on crawlers or tires, in the rock and mining industries is to reduce costs by permitting the substitution of conveyor belt haulage for truck or track haulage. The usual sequence of operations in surface mining is drilling, blasting, loading, haulage, and crushing. Haulage is normally accomplished by truck or track-mounted cars, the latter method being used for the longer distances. However, by using a portable crusher in the pit, the sequence of operations would be changed so that the crushing stage would occur before haulage (Fig. 1). Such a sequence would permit the use of conveyors to replace the more expensive truck or track haulage methods. Since most quarry and open pit operations normally require a crushing stage, the only additional costs incurred will be due to the investment required to purchase or construct a mobile arrangement for a crusher. But this factor has to be weighed against the advantages to be gained by conveyor haulage. As shown in Fig. 2, transportation of material by belt conveyor over short distances is less ex- pensive than by truck. The inclination of the belt has no effect on belt speed; consequently, the hourly tonnage moved remains the same. Conversely, the output rate of trucks as expressed in tons or ton- miles per shift decreases proportionally to the haulage speed, which is considerably slowed by the steepness of the road (Fig. 3a). Although maximum possible grades and maximum economic grades of haulage are greater for a belt than for a truck (over the same total lift), the longer haulage distances favor the use of trucks.

Jan 12, 1960

Problems discussed and research opportunities identified during the workshop in the major areas of 1) flocculation, 2) flotation, 3) leaching and magnetic separation are summarized below. I. FLOCCULATION Problems Practical problems caused by unintentional flocculation or dispersion were described in the papers that dealt with iron ore processing, selective flocculation, fine coal processing, phosphate processing and potash processing. Ideas generated during the discussions ranged from the very practical suggestion that a conscious effort be made to transfer knowhow from the experienced clay industry to the metals and fuels-from-slimes industry. . . , to the familiar appeals for omnipotent theoretical developments. There was surprising recurrence of some questions in many contexts. Recurring questions are emphasized here rather than commodity-specific problems because their answers would serve a wider clientele usage. There is indeed no objection and some advantage to commodity-specific research, however, provided the proposed project is planned with full cognizance of transferable knowledge in other commodities, and of the possible usefulness of these results in other areas. Research Needs Most of the questions or research opportunities can be classified into three groups: a) water chemistry, b) dewatering, and c) flocculation theory. Other classifications are possible and probably useful. In each group there is a clear need for outwardly esoteric theoretical research a clear application of that work to current practical problems. Higher priority should be given to proposals for theoretical research which explicitly show the expected ultimate usefulness of the result. Likewise, proposals for applied research should demonstrate cognizance of applicable theory. Both of these types of projects could profit from collaboration among industrial, university and government personnel.

Jan 1, 1979

By Jamie Deuel

The a ad on Connection" For the purpose of this paper, we will concentrate on the ubquitous radon gas as the principle, low-level radiation effect from uranium tailings piles. Standards are also proposed for gamma radiations but, by most accounts, this is much less of a low level problem than is radon. I am also aware of some just completed research at Oak Ridge National Laboratories that suggest polonium may be a major concern in tailings, but those data are preliminary at this time. What is radon gas? In the first place it is not a gas in the accepted sense in that it has no driving pressure head. It might prove a more convenient description to call it radon vapor. Radon vapor, then, is 7-1/2 times heavier than air. Radiologically, it is an alpha emitter which means it spontaneously gives off high ionizing potential but low penetrating power particles. In fact, the alpha particle has such low penetrating power that this sheet of paper will completely shield a person. The problem, though, is breathing the radon decay products, called radon daughters. If radon daughter products are ingested into the lungs, their alpha emissions may cause cancer. The principle carcinoma associated with breathing radon, or more basically, associated with radiological effects is oat cell car- cinoma of the undifferentiated mall cell type. Radon has a 3.8 day half life which means in less than four days half of its initial radioactivity has decayed away. In less than a month it essentially becomes inert or non-radioactive. The Tailings Situation The NRC, in its April 1979 Generic Environmental Impact Statement

Jan 1, 1983

By D. W. Rudd, D. W. Vose, J. B. Vetrano

In an earlier paper the permeability character of Mo-0.5 pct Ti to hydrogen was described.' It was shown that this alloy is a more effective barrier to the passage of hydrogen than previously studied systems, i.e., copper,2 nickel,3 and several stainless steels.4 The permeability of Hastelloy B to hydrogen was investigated as a material having promising high-temperature structural properties which might have a low permeability to hydrogen. The general theory of permeation has been previously discussed,' and here only a summary of the more important results are given. It is found that except for very thin membranes, at low temperature, permeation of a gas through a metal barrier is determined by the rate of diffusion of the gas through the crystal lattice of the specimen, and that for hydrogen and the common diatomic gases, this passage involves dissociated particles as the diffusing species. The rate of permeation for hydrogen is therefore proportional to the square root of the pressure. It has also been found that the rate of permeation is inversely proportional to the thickness of the barrier. The apparatus used in this investigation was fundamentally the same as that employed in previous studies,' except that several simplifications result in the case of Hastelloy, since oxidation at the temperatures investigated is no longer a problem and welding of the specimen is relatively easy. A cross section of the membrane assembly is shown in Fig. 1. When finished, the assembly is about 5 in. long. The wall thickness is about 6 times the membrane thickness. The membrane (A) can be maintained at

Jan 1, 1963

JOHN.B. HASTINGS, Los Angeles, Cal. (written discussion).-This paper reminds me that when I had an option on a Nevada mine, where the only orebodies assayed $4 gold, I went to San Francisco to learn the cost of putting broken ore in a 25-ft, vein on the mine cars, and sought Mr. Alfred Wartenweiler, who said "There is not a mine in California that can tell what it costs to move ore in the stopes." When building small mills in the mountains, and with only 30 or 40 employees, by entering in a log at night the work performed by each man, I have been able to plot the costs with the accuracy shown in this paper, and very good discipline it is. Cost of new construction and repairs is carefully kept by most companies, and is compiled after completion; probably the outlay of labor and material in pieces of work sufficiently important to call for blueprints is estimated beforehand, but numberless odd jobs of construction and repairs are so itemized. . Might it not be worth while, at a large plant, to have these smaller daily tasks described in advance in a central repair office, and then let inspectors look over the job, report time and material needed, and enter it in sufficient detail in proper ledgers, the men then being sent to accomplish it, and reporting when finished? The forecasts would soon be made quickly and correctly and would give the head mechanic, carpenter, and electrician easy supervision of their men, and the results could be seen at a glance by the managers.

Jan 4, 1918

By Joseph Singewald

I. THE GENESIS OF THE DEPOSITS THE ore deposits at Firmeza have been worked continuously since 1884; those at Daiquiri since 1895. It is surprising, therefore, that they have not been the object of careful geologic study until quite recently. It is true that considerable attention was paid to these deposits by A. C. Spencer, in 1901, in the report on the geology of Cuba, by Hayes, Vaughan, and Spencer,1 but this was only incidental to a hasty general reconnaissance of the Island. As far as the Daiquiri deposits are concerned, this gap has been filled by the appearance of the two papers by Prof. James F. Kemp2 and by Prof. Waldemar Lindgren and Clyde P. Ross respectively.3 Max Roesler, first holder of the Emmons fellowship, made a detailed study of the Firmeza deposits during the past summer, so that soon we can expect a full description of them. Consequently, there is no. demand at the present time for a description of the deposits from other sources, rind that is not the purpose of this paper. The papers on Daiquiri, however, leave unsolved problems in regard to the age of the rocks of the district and certain phases of the genesis of the deposits, and it is with the. hope of aiding in the solution of some of these problems that this contribution is offered. Kemp, and Lindgren and Ross agree in assigning these deposits to the type of contact metamorphic deposits. They disagree in part on the question of their localization. The deposits occur in an extensive area of diorite which includes numerous blocks of limestone, and some-

Jan 3, 1916

By T. A. Rickard

Flaubert, as we know, laid stress on the selection of the right word, le mot juste, the precise epithet, the word that belongs to the thing. A sentence, or even a paragraph, may be spoiled by the use of a word that is not proper, that does not fit or is foreign to the meaning intended. An Australian mining expert is reported to have said: You have a property of considerable value, and what I saw warrants a good development of very rich cubicular galena, with gossan intermixed. 'Cubicular' means `belonging to a small bedroom', a `cubicle' being a sleeping compartment. He meant `cubic', of course. This is a malapropism, and reminds me of the lady from Chicago that, on her return from Europe, said how much she had enjoyed the rural parts of France, because, among other things, it was "so delightful to hear the French pheasants singing the mayonnaise to the tune of the Los Angelus". It is impossible to amalgamate coal-tar thoroughly with the pulp in the agitating-tank. In metallurgy, `amalgamate' refers to the combination of mercury with one or both of the precious metals, forming an amalgam, which is an alloy of mercury with another metal. It differs from other alloys, such as brass or bronze, in being made without the aid of heat, inasmuch as mercury is molten at the ordinary temperature. The word comes to us from the Greek. through Old French and means `something soft'. It is a mistake to use technical terms, having a specific meaning, for purposes that are foreign to that meaning. The writer of the quotation is not discussing any combination of metals; he is dealing with the physical process of mixing and is using 'amal-

Jan 1, 1931

ARTHUR CROWFOOT, Morenci, Ariz. (communication to the Secretary*).-In order to set at rest any doubts in regard to the reasons for selecting the Callow pneumatic flotation process for use in the concentrators of the Arizona Copper Co., Ltd., at Clifton and Morenci, I am presenting the following facts gained from the results of test work carried out on the Callow and Cole-Bergman types of flotation machines at Morenci. Prior to the comparative test of merit between the Callow and Cole-Bergman machines, many months' time and a large amount of money had been expended in the development and testing of the Cole-Bergman machine, and it was necessary to decide quickly what make of machine was best to install. The Callow pneumatic flotation process was recommended for installation in our concentrators for the following reasons: The results indicated: 1. That the Callow system made the highest extraction of copper values from the feed treated. 2. That the Callow system was simpler to operate and could he operated it a lower cost. 3. That the Callow system operated with a lower air pressure. (The question of the actual power consumption of the two types of machines was not definitely settled at this time.) During the official test period the Callow flotation apparatus showed an additional recovery of from 1 to 1.5 lb. of copper per ton more than the Cole-Bergman machine, this difference being maintained by further treatment of the tailing from both machines. The simplicity of the operation of the Callow flotation system is one of its notable features, two operators per shift being able to handle 90 standard cells and blower equipment.

Jan 7, 1917

By Vsevolod Krivobok

THE re-crystallization of metals has been the subject of much scientific investigation, some of which has resulted in a better understanding of this extremely important and interesting phenomenon. Unfortunately, while many have propounded theories of re-crystallization, but a few have presented experimental evidence as to how it takes place. If this can be determined the question, why re-crystallization occurs, may be answered more definitely. Re-crystallization in single phase metals consists of a complete rearrangement and re-sizing of the grains, of which the structure is composed, while the type of structure remains the same. That is to say, if the structure before re-crystallization is composed of a number of polyhedral grains of different shape and size, a particular spot after re-crystallization will be seen to consist of grains in no way different from the original except in size and shape. The re-crystallized grains may be smaller or larger, depending on the treatment received; and, while the re-crystallization may be brought about by means of heat treatment only in passing through a critical range, yet it is common knowledge that single phase metals subjected to cold working are possessed of a tendency toward re-crystallization, even if the heating does not reach critical range. The study of re-crystallization would, of course, be much easier if we had single crystals of any metal as the original material with which to study the phenomenon of re-crystallization, since it would permit the observation of structural changes at what amounts to enormous magnification, by changing the scale of the specimen. In metals of more normal grain size the crystal boundaries introduce complications, but the process, it may be assumed, is essentially the same. Such an opportunity

Jan 2, 1926

By W. A. Wall, R. L. Kidd

IN present-day flotation practice, grinding of the flotation feed is carried to extremely fine sizes, 70 to 80 per cent minus 200 mesh being customary. The greatest flotation losses occur in the coarsest and finest sizes, but the losses in the very fine sizes are, of course, much the more important because of the large proportion of fines in the feed. These losses are particularly high in zinc ores so a study of the effect of size on the flotation of sphalerite has been made. The mineral used in these experi¬ments was a pure sphalerite, especially free from copper, from the Joplin district in Missouri. The sizes coarser than 200 mesh were separated by screening, the sized mineral then being deslimed on a Wilfley table. The sizes finer than 200 mesh were obtained by water elutriation as described by H. R. Bradford (M. S. Thesis, University of Utah, 1932) ; particles finer than 6.5 microns could not be obtained with the apparatus used.

Jan 1, 1933

By ANTON GRAY

In considering the possibilities and costs of discovering minerals by exploration. mineral occurrences may be classified roughly according to the size of the target they offer to the various methods that have been used to search them out. This classification is advantageous because the methods of search which might be expected to give results in one case may be totally inapplicable in others. Mineral deposits for the most part have been found in groups, or districts, in which the individual deposits occur under the same general geological conditions and usually contain more or less the same metals. There are, also, what are apparently isolated de- posits, although if the truth were fully known many of these probably would not be isolated. These districts, such as the Belgian Congo copper fields, the California Mother Lode, and the Linares lead district of Spain, form the first division of my classification. The second division is formed of the individual deposits of these districts, for example, Kambove mine in the Congo, the Kennedy-Argonaut vein in California, and the Cruz vein at Linares. The third division consists of the separate ore bodies that make up the deposits

Jan 1, 1949

By H. Rush Spedden, A. M. Gaudin

IN the belief that a critical study of its operating problems might be a sound investment, the Cuban American Manganese Corporation initiated an ore-treatment research in cooperation with the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. One of the early objectives of this research naturally became the relationship of the microscopy of the Cuban ores of the Corporation to their flotation treatment. The operations in Cuba have already been described by F. S. Norcross, Jr.7 and the laboratory study of manganese oxide flotation goes back a number of years .4 Broadly speaking, the difficulties encountered in the flotation of manganese ores are that the consumption of reagents is extremely high, the concentrate contains more silica than is desirable and the tailing losses are relatively high. An appreciable betterment on any of these scores would achieve a definite betterment in costs, quantity of minable ores, and quality of product. The microscope study discussed in this paper was made on samples from the Quinto mine, from the Ponupo mine, and from mill products at various stages of passage of the ore through the mill. The writers have had access to Company records and in particular to the petro¬graphic studies made on thin sections of ore by the late Professors R. J. Colony and Philip Krieger, of Columbia University. They acknowledge their debt to both of these men for the help derived from the reports. Manganese oxides are black, friable, smudging. It is, therefore, very difficult to judge operations by inspection. The mineralogy of manganese compounds seems to be confused, and the authors believe that many more minerals have been described than actually exist. Much of this difficulty is due to the prevalence of the structural conditions that will be discussed further in this paper; namely, the porosity and the friability of the ores, and the extremely intimate association of minute manganiferous mineral crystals with impurities of various sorts. By all odds the most important manganese mineral in Cuba is the one that in this paper is called "psilomelane." The name "psilomelane" has been used in so many different ways that the choice of it for this ore may not be approved by all. However, it seems to be the best under the circumstances. This mineral accounts for about 97 per cent of the manganese in the ores of the Quinto and Ponupo mines and in the mill feed. The remaining odd 3 per cent consists mostly of pyrolusite together with minor amounts of other manganese oxide minerals. DESCRIPTION OF PSILOMELANE Aggregate Structure In grains or lumps, psilomelane has a characteristic fibrous appearance and seems

Jan 1, 1942

Jan 1, 1951

Jan 1, 1951