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By Arthur Fleischer

The Kalunite process+ for the production of metal-grade alumina from alumina-con-taining ores is applicable, considered from a general point of view, to any aluminous raw material that can be converted to potassium alum or equivalent normal alum. This result of modern technology has been the subject of a continuous study and development since 1929, on a laboratory and test-plant scale, with initial emphasis on the utilization of alunite as the raw material. The research and developmental program was carried out by the Kalunite Company and its successor, Kalunite, Inc., an affiliate of the Olin Corporation of East Alton, Illinois. The process is now approaching the time for a major test in its history with the completion of construction of a plant having a capacity of IOO tons of alumina per day in Salt Lake City for the conversion of Marysvale, Utah, alunite ores to alumina and potassium sulphate. The Salt Lake Alumina Plant is a Defense Plant Corporation project. Production of Aluminum: The known existence of alunite deposits, especially in the Marysvale district, furnished the motive for the original inquiry into the utilization of this raw material for aluminum production. The deposits in this region were actively explored during World War I and utilized for the production of potassium sulphate, an essential fertilizer, of which a shortage of monumental proportions then existed. Up to the twentieth century—for alunite is a mineral with an ancient history—it was used in Europe and in China as a source of potassium alum. It never had been used successfully in this country as a source of oxide for reduction to metal. Although the known reserves of this ore, which undoubtedly will be greatly expanded with a commercial outlet for this ore, are recognized to be sufficient for only a part of the present-day needs of aluminum, it has a definite place in the aluminum industry. Academically it points the way for future raw materials. The aluminum industry has undergone a remarkable growth in the past few years as a result of defense and war requirements. Its expansion in many ways has been beyond belief and prediction, both in volume and location. This wartime status of the industry has accelerated the consumption of bauxite to such an extent that a re-evaluation of the raw material reserves for the future peacetime industry and for eventual wartime reserves is seemingly of concern. The generally accepted picture of bauxite ore reserves in the United States, especially in raw material suitable for treatment by the Bayer process, focuses attention on other possible sources of raw material of metal-grade oxide. The perspective for the development of a suitable process may have changed in the interim since the original work by Kalunite, but the ultimate goal is the same.

Jan 1, 1944

By C. C. Wright, T. S. Spicer

A characteristic property of bituminous coal is that upon being heated the coal becomes plastic, evolves volatile gases, and finally solidifies into coke. This fundamental characteristic is of utmost importance and is utilized in the production of the high-temperature coke upon which the steel industry is so dependent; but from the standpoint of operation in the domestic underfeed stoker this coking tendency seriously interferes with efficient combustion. When the coke formed has too strong a structure, certain difficulties result, such as low rate of burning, slow response to heat demand, and, in extreme cases, extinction of fire. The plastic mass prevents uniform distribution of air through the fuel bed and, with strongly coking coals, large dense pieces of coke are produced which have much less reacting surface than was possessed by the original coal. In both ignition and combustion of solid fuels, the extent of the reacting surface is an accelerating factor. Poor combustion permits a surplus of fuel to accumulate in the furnace because the rate of feed and the rate of combustion are not in equilibrium, and this produces an unbalanced condition detrimental to continued automatic service. In order to bum strongly coking coals satisfactorily in a conventional stoker during the three requisite types of operation—continuous, intermittent and hold-fire, frequent attention is necessary. Domestic stokers are defined by the industry as residential stoker heaters that burn 60 lb. of coal or less per hour. With a few exceptions, these units employ the underfeed principle of combustion in which both air and coal move in the same direction up and through the fuel bed. Domestic combustion equipment has difficulty in meeting the problems presented by the several variations in ash and volatile matter, in ash-clinkering tendencies, in coking properties, and in the particle size of bituminous coals. The work of Bituminous Coal Research Inc. at Battelle Memorial Institute has shown that, of these, coking characteristics and the clinkering tendencies have the greatest effect upon the operation of the conventional clinkering type of stoker. Typical coke formations in a clinkering type of underfeed domestic stoker are illustratcd in Fig. I, which shows (A) the ideal fuel bed obtained with a noncoking or free-burning coal; (B) the type of fuel bed formed with a coal that produces a weak coke; and (C) the type of fuel bed obtained with a strongly coking coal. C is characteristic of the fuel bed developed when the average Pennsylvania bituminous coal is burned in an underfeed stoker of conventional type. It is apparent from these pictures that the formation of coke trees will seriously interfere with the efficient automatic combustion of Pennsylvania bituminous coals.

Jan 1, 1942

By T. S. Spicer, C. C. Wright

A characteristic property of bituminous coal is that upon being heated the coal becomes plastic, evolves volatile gases, and finally solidifies into coke. This fundamental characteristic is of utmost importance and is utilized in the production of the high-temperature coke upon which the steel industry is so dependent; but from the standpoint of operation in the domestic underfeed stoker this coking tendency seriously interferes with efficient combustion. When the coke formed has too strong a structure, certain difficulties result, such as low rate of burning, slow response to heat demand, and, in extreme cases, extinction of fire. The plastic mass prevents uniform distribution of air through the fuel bed and, with strongly coking coals, large dense pieces of coke are produced which have much less reacting surface than was possessed by the original coal. In both ignition and combustion of solid fuels, the extent of the reacting surface is an accelerating factor. Poor combustion permits a surplus of fuel to accumulate in the furnace because the rate of feed and the rate of combustion are not in equilibrium, and this produces an unbalanced condition detrimental to continued automatic service. In order to bum strongly coking coals satisfactorily in a conventional stoker during the three requisite types of operation—continuous, intermittent and hold-fire, frequent attention is necessary. Domestic stokers are defined by the industry as residential stoker heaters that burn 60 lb. of coal or less per hour. With a few exceptions, these units employ the underfeed principle of combustion in which both air and coal move in the same direction up and through the fuel bed. Domestic combustion equipment has difficulty in meeting the problems presented by the several variations in ash and volatile matter, in ash-clinkering tendencies, in coking properties, and in the particle size of bituminous coals. The work of Bituminous Coal Research Inc. at Battelle Memorial Institute has shown that, of these, coking characteristics and the clinkering tendencies have the greatest effect upon the operation of the conventional clinkering type of stoker. Typical coke formations in a clinkering type of underfeed domestic stoker are illustratcd in Fig. I, which shows (A) the ideal fuel bed obtained with a noncoking or free-burning coal; (B) the type of fuel bed formed with a coal that produces a weak coke; and (C) the type of fuel bed obtained with a strongly coking coal. C is characteristic of the fuel bed developed when the average Pennsylvania bituminous coal is burned in an underfeed stoker of conventional type. It is apparent from these pictures that the formation of coke trees will seriously interfere with the efficient automatic combustion of Pennsylvania bituminous coals.

Jan 1, 1942

By Y. C. Liu

The orientation relationship between the dejormation and recrystallization textztres of binary Cu-P alloys of high phosphorus content was observed to he a ± 14-deg (110) rotation. According to the ori-ented-gvowth hypothesis, the same relationship should exist between a successfully flowing pain and the strained single-crystal matrix of alloys of corresponding composition. The orientations of thirty successfully growing grains were obtained in a Cu-1.0 at. pct P alloy. Both a conventional analysis and the more detailed analysis advanced in the present study demonstrate that the observed orientation relationship is not comparahle to that predicted by the oriented growth hypothesis. IT has been shown experimentally that the formation of recrystallization textures in metals may be explained on the basis of the oriented-growth hypothesis. This conclusion is based primarily on the results of cooperative experiments carried out by various investigators in aluminum. Beck and HU' suggested that the orientation relationship between the recrystallization and deformation textures of aluminum is a 38-deg(111) rotation. A similar relationship, i.e., a 40-deg(111) rotation, was observed between the primary and secondary recrys-tallization textures.' Since the secondary grains result from a process of selective growth, this naturally implies that the same mechanism is also responsible for the formation of the primary re-crystallization texture from the deformed matrix. Further evidence was provided by the experiments of Liebmann, Liicke, and Massing3 and Yoshida, Liebmann, and Lucke.4 They observed that grains which could successfully grow into strained aluminum single crystals invariably exhibited the same orientation relationships with their matrix. Thus, regardless of other opinions,5'9 these results offered good evidence in favor of the oriented-growth hypothesis. In order to examine broader applications of this oriented-growth hypothesis, experiments should be carried out in metals other than aluminum. In a recent investigation on the recrystallization textures of binary copper alloys with phosphorus, arsenic, and antimony,7 it was found that the predominant recrystallization components were related to the deformation textures by a (110) rotation. The (110) rotational relationship is different from the (111) relationship generally proposed between the recrystallization and deformation components of other binary copper alloys. 1,8,9 Applying the observations made for aluminum, the oriented-growth hypothesis predicts that the orientation relationship of grains successfully growing into the strained single crystals of either one of these copper alloys should correspond to that observed in the textural study. Verification of this prediction would provide a critical test of general applicability of the oriented-growth hypothesis to the formation of recrystallization textures in fcc metals other than aluminum. The Cu-1.0 at. pct P alloy was selected in the

Jan 1, 1964

By H. Eyring, J. W. Fredrickson

Many theories have been advanced to explain the phenomena of elastic and plastic deformation. The object of this report is to present a mechanism for deformation, not radically differing from existing theories, but embodying.certain principles and concepts of these theories. This proposed theory cannot be the complete answer to the age-old problem of deformation but it is believed that it will be a step further in the proper direction. The plastic properties of solids have recently been reviewed by Seitz and Read.' ZenerZ has reviewed and correlated the existing work on the anelasticity of metals. With these and others3'4'5 resent theories of deformation are well-known. Of the many theories now extant, those receiving most attention have been proffered by Griffith,6 Becker,l Smekal,8 Polanyilg Orowanlo and Taylor.'' Although differing quite widely in details, these theories are based more or less on a common principle of flaws or dislocations that exist in the crystal lattice. The effect of stress concentrations surrounding a flaw or crack has been treated most recently by Fisher and Hollomon.12 The various authors differ as to the exact nature of the flaws or dislocations, the causes of their appearance, or the manner in which they initiate slip. All of the theories agree that the number of dislocations increases with progressing deformation. It is universally agreed that the shearing process is not a simple gliding of ideally perfect atomic lattice planes. It is also agreed that the "macroscopic" process of gliding, or slip, is brought about by the spreading of a large number of locally initiated "glide steps" through the whole crystal. The occurrence of these "glide steps" is closely related to the presence of some kind of deviations from the "ideal" lattice structure, even in the undeformed crystal. These deviations are overcome ''one at a time," in a manner of speaking, due to some stress-concentrating effect.13 Proposed Theory Many solids show a continuously increasing deformation if subjected to a constant load of suitable magnitude in an extended range of temperature for a sufficient time. This deformation, or flow, may be said to be due, in general, to the tendency of the atoms or molecules in an elastically stressed body to readjust themselves in such a way that if the deformation were kept constant, a release of stress would take place. If rupture does not occur, this process of relaxation causes the rate of flow to obtain a final constant value, as shown in the curve (Fig I) obtained by Taylor and Quinney.14 In this state the release of stress by relaxation exactly counterbalances the increase due to the elastic strain on the test pieces.

Jan 1, 1949

By Arthur Fleischer

THE Kalunite process? for the production of metal-grade alumina from alumina-containing ores is applicable, considered from a general point of view, to any aluminous raw material that can be converted to potassium alum or equivalent normal alum. This result of modern technology has been the subject of a continuous study and development since 1929, on a laboratory and test-plant scale, with initial emphasis on the utilization of alunite as the raw material. The research and developmental program was carried out by the Kalunite Company and its successor, Kalunite, Inc., an affiliate of the Olin Corporation of East Alton, Illinois. The process is now approaching the time for a major test in its history with the completion of construction of a plant having a capacity of zoo tons of alumina per day in Salt Lake City for the conversion of Marysvale, Utah, alunite ores to alumina and potassium sulphate. The Salt Lake Alumina Plant is a Defense Plant Corporation project. PRODUCTION OF ALUMINUM The known existence of alunite deposits, especially in the Marysvale district, furnished the motive for the original inquiry into the utilization of this raw material for aluminum production. The deposits in this region were actively explored during World War I and utilized for the production of potassium sulphate, an essential fertilizer, of which a shortage of monumental proportions then existed. Up to the twentieth century for alunite is a mineral with an ancient history-it was used in Europe and in China as a source of potassium alum. It never had been used successfully in. this country as a source of oxide for reduction to metal. Although the known reserves of this ore, which undoubtedly will be greatly expanded with a commercial outlet for this ore, are recognized to be sufficient for only a part of the present-day needs of aluminum, it has a definite place in the aluminum industry. Academically it points the way for future raw materials. The aluminum industry has undergone a remarkable growth in the past few years as a result of defense and war requirements. Its expansion in many ways has been beyond belief and prediction, both in volume and location. This wartime status of the industry has accelerated the consumption of bauxite to such an extent, that a re-evaluation of the raw material reserves for the future peacetime industry and for eventual wartime reserves is seemingly of concern. The generally accepted picture of bauxite ore reserves in the United States, especially in raw material suitable for treatment by the Bayer process, focuses attention on other possible sources of raw material of metal-grade oxide. The perspective for the development of a suitable process may have changed in the interim

Jan 1, 1944

This paper "On Coal" was published in three issues of The Western Gleaner in 1814. Name of author is not given. This magazine was started by Cramer, Spear & Eichbaum, in Pittsburgh, Pa., in December 1813, and ran for about two years. Copies are very rare, and this one is made from an original in the Darlington Library, University of Pittsburgh. This is almost certainly the first general article on coal published west of the Allegheny Mountains, and one of the earliest in this country. ON COAL Its Natural History-Mining of Coal-Phenomena occasioned by Fire-damp-Method of Coking-Distillation of Tar from Pit-coal-Gas-light-Coal, a Manure I. NATURAL HISTORY OF COAL There are few productions of nature which present to the philosopher a wider field of investigation than pit-coal. A substance highly inflammable is found in the deep recesses of the earth, sometimes loaded with numerous superincumbent strata of hard rock, and extending frequently along with these strata through a vast expanse of territory. Though metals may be said to be inflammable substances, as they combine more or less rapidly with oxygen when placed under particular circumstances, yet the character of rapid combustion with disengagement of light and heat, seems to belong. principally to such substances as are derived either from the animal or vegetable kingdom. That this is probably the case with regard to coal we are further induced to believe, by the remarkable circumstance, that the chemical analysis of this natural production yields especially, though in various proportions, those materials which constitute essentially the vegetable. And if any thing was wanting to confirm, us in that opinion we might trace in a number of fossile substances the gradual transition of the vegetable into the state of mineral coal. This fact is so intimately connected with the natural history of coal, that we cannot think it superfluous to give it some farther development. Among the great number of principles which the chemist is capable of tracing in the vegetable kingdom, the presence of extract, resin and fibre seem to form the characteristical marks of plants.-If vegetable matter be boiled in water, and the water, after having been strained and filtered, be exposed for some time to the open air, a flocculent precipitate takes `place from every part of the liquor; which soon subsides to the bottom of the vessel containing it. This is the extract; altered, indeed, by exposure, and now no longer soluble in water, a change which is supposed to depend on the absorption of oxygen; and if, by any means the proportion of oxygen be increased, the extract gradually becomes of a darker color, blackens, and approaches to the state of charred wood.

Jan 1, 1942

By Frederick L. Knouse

The south border of Espirito Santo begins about 400 km. north of Rio de Janeiro and extends along the Atlantic Coast northward some 325 km. and inland 100 to 150 km. The area under consideration, where quartz crystal of strategic grades has been mined, extends from 19º to 21º and 30º south latitude; and from 40º to 41º and 30º west longitude. This includes the central part of Espirito santo, chiefly south of the Rio Doce from the Atlantic ocean, and west across the border into Minas Gerais near the town of Aimores, in the municipalities of Aimores, Minas Gerais; Baixo Guandu, Santa Teresa, Santa Leopoldina, Colatina, Joao Neiva, Fundao and Domingo Mar-tines, Espirito Santo (Fig. I). During 1943 and the first half of 1944, this region accounted for approximately 3 to 5 per cent of the quartz crystal produced in Brazil. Shipments of crystal have been made chiefly by rail to Rio de Janeiro. This region is serviced by the E. F. Minas-Vitoria and E. F. Leopoldina to Rio de Janeiro through vitoria; and by the E. F. Minas-Vitoria and E. F. Centra] do Brasil through Bello Horizonte, Minas Gerais to Rio de Janeiro. The major deposits are accessible from the railheads by dirt roads, some being 5 to 30 km. off the road, reached by trail. In 1943 and the first half of 1944, the bulk of the production was from inter- mountain marshes and adjoining hillside alluvial placer deposits in the zone surrounding the town of Santa Teresa. Most of these deposits were formed from the erosion of pegmatite~, quartz veins and pockets in the gneiss, with minor quantities produced from miarolitic cavity fillings in the granitic rock. Early Operations Mining of quartz crystal in this region began in 1928 and has been stimulated by the market demand for military uses. Before 1936 little attention was given to it, either in Espirito Santo or eastern Minas Gerais. From 1936 to 1941 the Japanese sent agents to various points of production or potential production to acquire quartz through purchase. They bought crysta1 as small as 10 grams. Since '94' only the United States and Great Britain have received quartz from Brazil. The United States purchases crystals of 100 grams and larger for strategic purposes. The first known discoveries were made either in the municipalities of Aimores, Minas Gerais, or in Baixo Guandu, 01 Domingos Martines, Espirito Santo. Marketable quartz crysta1 was first found either in the massive quartz replacement veins of the Victor Hugo mine in the municipality of Domingo Martines, or in the large 'ores of quartz in the pegmatites near Baixo Guandu, extending into Minas Gerais. Production The production of quartz in Espirito Santo from 1936 through 1941 as recorded

Jan 1, 1948

By Frederick L. Knouse

The south border of Espirito Santo begins about 400 km. north of Rio de Janeiro and extends along the Atlantic Coast northward some 325 km. and inland 100 to 150 km. The area under consideration, where quartz crystal of strategic grades has been mined, extends from 19º to 21º and 30º south latitude; and from 40º to 41º and 30º west longitude. This includes the central part of Espirito santo, chiefly south of the Rio Doce from the Atlantic ocean, and west across the border into Minas Gerais near the town of Aimores, in the municipalities of Aimores, Minas Gerais; Baixo Guandu, Santa Teresa, Santa Leopoldina, Colatina, Joao Neiva, Fundao and Domingo Mar-tines, Espirito Santo (Fig. I). During 1943 and the first half of 1944, this region accounted for approximately 3 to 5 per cent of the quartz crystal produced in Brazil. Shipments of crystal have been made chiefly by rail to Rio de Janeiro. This region is serviced by the E. F. Minas-Vitoria and E. F. Leopoldina to Rio de Janeiro through vitoria; and by the E. F. Minas-Vitoria and E. F. Centra] do Brasil through Bello Horizonte, Minas Gerais to Rio de Janeiro. The major deposits are accessible from the railheads by dirt roads, some being 5 to 30 km. off the road, reached by trail. In 1943 and the first half of 1944, the bulk of the production was from inter- mountain marshes and adjoining hillside alluvial placer deposits in the zone surrounding the town of Santa Teresa. Most of these deposits were formed from the erosion of pegmatite~, quartz veins and pockets in the gneiss, with minor quantities produced from miarolitic cavity fillings in the granitic rock. Early Operations Mining of quartz crystal in this region began in 1928 and has been stimulated by the market demand for military uses. Before 1936 little attention was given to it, either in Espirito Santo or eastern Minas Gerais. From 1936 to 1941 the Japanese sent agents to various points of production or potential production to acquire quartz through purchase. They bought crysta1 as small as 10 grams. Since '94' only the United States and Great Britain have received quartz from Brazil. The United States purchases crystals of 100 grams and larger for strategic purposes. The first known discoveries were made either in the municipalities of Aimores, Minas Gerais, or in Baixo Guandu, 01 Domingos Martines, Espirito Santo. Marketable quartz crysta1 was first found either in the massive quartz replacement veins of the Victor Hugo mine in the municipality of Domingo Martines, or in the large 'ores of quartz in the pegmatites near Baixo Guandu, extending into Minas Gerais. Production The production of quartz in Espirito Santo from 1936 through 1941 as recorded

Jan 1, 1948

By M. Muskat, H. H. Evinger

A METHOD has been developed whereby one may calculate the productivity factors of producing formations from a knowledge of the reservoir conditions. Account is taken not only of the heterogeneous character of the gas-oil flow system but also of the detailed variations with pressure of the shrinkage and viscosity of the oil, the solubility of the gas in the oil, and even the variability of the gas viscosity and the deviation of the gas from ideal behavior. Curves are shown giving the results of numerical calculations on the production rate as a function of the pressure differential for a high-pressure and a low-pressure system, three values of gas-oil ratio being treated in each case. Curves are also given showing the variation with distance from the well of the pressure, oil saturation, and permeability. The effect of connate water is briefly discussed in relation to the apparently large discrepancies between the calculated and observed productivity-factor values. INTRODUCTION The significance of the productivity factor as a measure of the capacity of an oil-bearing formation to produce is well recognized; for it is the composite and integrated resultant of the physical properties of both the porous medium and the fluid stream passing through it with respect to the ease with which the particular petroleum fluids present in the formation can flow through it and into producing wells. The most direct method of determining the productivity factor of a well consists, as is well known, in the simultaneous measurement of reservoir-pressure differentials and rates of production and the expression of the data in terms of rate of flow per unit pressure drop.1 Actual measurements carried out in this manner on producing wells have given factors that generally lie in the range of 0 to 100 bbl. per day per pound pressure drop. This wide range arises not only from variations in permeability but also from the varying sand thickness of producing formations. One of the aims of developing a theory of the mechanics of oil production obviously is that of predicting what the productivity factor should be from a knowledge of the individual characteristics of the producing formation and the fluids produced. For homogeneous fluid systems passing through a porous medium into a producing well, it has been known for some time that the steady-state rate of liquid flow Q is given by the formula:* [ ] where k is the sand permeability, h its thickness, µ the liquid viscosity, [Ap] the pressure drop between the well and the distant parts of the reservoir, in particular that at a radius [ro ]and [r ] is the well radius. This gives the productivity factor: [ ] which will have a numerical value for a liquid of I centipoise viscosity of 0.9316 or

Jan 1, 1941

By V. H. Wilhelm

The year 1941 in the California oil industry was marked by an increased market demand, drilling activity, and production of crude oil. Although seven new oil fields and two gas fields were discovered during the year, additions to reserves from these discoveries, as well as extensions and revaluations of previous discoveries, were approximately 100 million barrels, as against estimated withdrawals of 230,233,000 barrels. The year was remarkable for the very great increase in domestic demand for all products, which more than compensated for the loss in shipments to Japan, which averaged 60,041 bbl. Per day during 1940. Demand in terms of crude during 1941 was 648,967 bbl. per day as against 632,647 for the same period in 1940. This abnormal increase in demand is due to increased industrial activity, and especially increased railroad activity. Gasoline consumption for 1941 was 241,011 bbl. per day as against 217,744 in 1940. Demand for fuel oil increased from 259,806 bbl. per day in 1940 to 285,896 in 1941, and caused a withdrawal from stocks of more than 7,473,000 barrels. During 1941, total oil storage declined 9,153,000 bbl., but additions to storage of 1,754,000 bbl. of light oil and light oil products were offset by a withdrawal of 10,907,000 bbl. of heavier products. Production during the year is estimated at 230,233,000 bbl. as against 222,784,386 bbl. for 1940. TraNsportation For a short time, California was affected by lack of transportation due to the diversion of tankers. This shortage affected the movement of oil from the Sari Joaquin mated to the refineries, since a large percentage of this production is moved to the coast through pipe lines, and thence by tankers to Los Angeles and San Fran-,iSco, Return of the tanker fleet, which may be temporary, indicates that there is a possibility of ample supplies of petroleum products in the Pacific Northwest. Drilling Activity Contrary to general opinion, drilling activity increased in 1941 over the pre-vious Year, 942 wells being completed in 1941 as against 890 in 1940, an increase Of 6 per cent. This increase was due to the increased demands for fuel oil, and also to the decreased drilling costs, which made many former marginal locations economic. The main activity caused by increased demands for fuel oil was in the Mt. Poso, McKittrick, Midway and Santa Maria Valley oil fields. Dry-hole footage in 1941 was 655,354 ft. as against 583,537 ft. for 1940. Curtailment Voluntary curtailment succeeded in holding production considerably below demand, although it was above the state quota. During the year the top allotment

Jan 1, 1942

By V. H. Wilhelm

The year 1941 in the California oil industry was marked by an increased market demand, drilling activity, and production of crude oil. Although seven new oil fields and two gas fields were discovered during the year, additions to reserves from these discoveries, as well as extensions and revaluations of previous discoveries, were approximately 100 million barrels, as against estimated withdrawals of 230,233,000 barrels. The year was remarkable for the very great increase in domestic demand for all products, which more than compensated for the loss in shipments to Japan, which averaged 60,041 bbl. Per day during 1940. Demand in terms of crude during 1941 was 648,967 bbl. per day as against 632,647 for the same period in 1940. This abnormal increase in demand is due to increased industrial activity, and especially increased railroad activity. Gasoline consumption for 1941 was 241,011 bbl. per day as against 217,744 in 1940. Demand for fuel oil increased from 259,806 bbl. per day in 1940 to 285,896 in 1941, and caused a withdrawal from stocks of more than 7,473,000 barrels. During 1941, total oil storage declined 9,153,000 bbl., but additions to storage of 1,754,000 bbl. of light oil and light oil products were offset by a withdrawal of 10,907,000 bbl. of heavier products. Production during the year is estimated at 230,233,000 bbl. as against 222,784,386 bbl. for 1940. TraNsportation For a short time, California was affected by lack of transportation due to the diversion of tankers. This shortage affected the movement of oil from the Sari Joaquin mated to the refineries, since a large percentage of this production is moved to the coast through pipe lines, and thence by tankers to Los Angeles and San Fran-,iSco, Return of the tanker fleet, which may be temporary, indicates that there is a possibility of ample supplies of petroleum products in the Pacific Northwest. Drilling Activity Contrary to general opinion, drilling activity increased in 1941 over the pre-vious Year, 942 wells being completed in 1941 as against 890 in 1940, an increase Of 6 per cent. This increase was due to the increased demands for fuel oil, and also to the decreased drilling costs, which made many former marginal locations economic. The main activity caused by increased demands for fuel oil was in the Mt. Poso, McKittrick, Midway and Santa Maria Valley oil fields. Dry-hole footage in 1941 was 655,354 ft. as against 583,537 ft. for 1940. Curtailment Voluntary curtailment succeeded in holding production considerably below demand, although it was above the state quota. During the year the top allotment

Jan 1, 1942

By L. W. Kempf, K. R. VanHorn

PLASTIC deformation of most commercial metals within a sufficiently low temperature range results in profound changes in structure and properties, of which the causes and effects are not completely understood. One of these effects is the presence of internal residual stresses and strains, which ordinarily do not appear to require specific consideration in most structural applications but which may be quite undesirable in particular instances. For example, in heavy sections that require considerable machining before assembly, residual stresses may be undesirable because of the distortion they cause when their balance is disturbed by machining or otherwise. In addition, the distribution of stresses may be such that it acts in the same direction as the applied load, thus bringing about premature failure or reducing the load-carrying capacity of the member. One source of residual stress in metal structures is the plastic deformation that may occur during rapid cooling from relatively elevated temperatures, as in the cooling of a casting in the mold or the quenching of a heavy section from elevated temperatures during heat-treatment. These residual stresses are usually undesirable because their direction of operation and magnitude cannot be controlled well enough to permit utilization of the changes in properties of the metal that they may bring about. The most convenient manner of controlling such residual stress is by proper selection of the cooling rate or by reheating to a temperature at which plastic flow can take place, resulting in relief of the residual stresses and strains. Both of these methods of control, however, may cause a reduction in the optimum properties obtainable from the previous operation compromise must be struck, and if it is to result in the best possible combinations of properties, specific information must be available regarding the magnitude of the stresses and the rate at which they are affected by variations in cooling rate or in reheating temperature. The complete quantitative estimation of residual stress in complicated metal shapes is exceedingly difficult, if not impossible. In simple sections, however, relatively quantitative analysis may be applied and useful estimations of stress distribution may be made. This paper is concerned largely with the rate of relief, upon reheating, of internal residual stress in simple aluminum-alloy structures. Since even with simple structures quantitative estimation of residual stresses is laborious and costly, an attempt was made to find other means of collecting data upon which commercial heat-treatments might be based. Incidentally, a few data were collected bearing on the problem of relaxation of aluminum alloys. DETERMINATION OF RESIDUAL STRESSES The magnitude and distribution of residual stresses in simple aluminum-alloy shapes rapidly cooled from elevated temperatures has been discussed in a previous paper.1 Fig. I reproduces some of the data

Jan 1, 1941

By Fred C. Bond, Walter Maxson

Since the last publication of tabulated results of grindability tests by the authors1 the total number of ball-mill tests made has more than doubled, and rod-mill tests have become increasingly important. Nearly all of the standard closed-circuit ball-mill and rod-mill tests made to date are included in the present tabulation, together with additional information not previously published. Standard Ball-mill Grindability Tests The method of conducting these closed-circuit tests has not been altered. A sample of the ore or other material is stage-crushed in rolls set at 1/16-in. opening with a 6-mesh screen until all of it has passed the screen. The combined minus 6-mesh screen undersize is mixed, sampled and screen-analyzed, and its apparent specific gravity is determined by packing and shaking in a standard container, and weighing. The apparent specific gravity ordinarily is about 60 per cent of the true specific gravity. The unit volume present in the mill .in all tests is 700 C.C. of the packed minus 6-mesh roll product, and the number of grams occupying 700 C.C. is the unit test weight. This weight is placed in the mill dry, ground for the number of revolutions estimated to be necessary, discharged, and screened mechanically in three testing sieves of the mesh size at which the test is to be conducted. The oversize, or circulating load, is weighed, sufficient fresh minus 6-mesh feed is added to bring the total weight up to that of 700 c.c., and the charge is returned to the mill for a second grinding period. All standard ball-mill tests are conducted at 250 per cent circulating load, and the number of revolutions in the mill necessary to obtain this circulating load at any grinding period is estimated from the results of the previous period. The number of net grams of screen undersize produced per revolution of the mill approaches its final equilibrium value after several grinding periods, and this is recorded as the grindability, or relative ease of grinding, of the sample. A cylindrical ball mill, 12 by 12 in. inside, with a smooth lining and rounded corners, is used with a revolution counter Under standard grinding conditions it runs at 70 r.p.m., and contains a charge of 285 iron balls weighing 20,125 grams, ranging from I½ to ¾ in. in diameter. Tests are conducted at the mesh size to which the ore is to be ground in practice, and the capacity- to be expected from a given mill is calculated by comparing the grindability with that of a similar standard ore whose performance characteristics arc known. No satisfactory general formula for convertillg standard grindabilities into corn; rnercial power-consumption values has been

Jan 1, 1943

By Walter Maxson, Fred C. Bond

Since the last publication of tabulated results of grindability tests by the authors1 the total number of ball-mill tests made has more than doubled, and rod-mill tests have become increasingly important. Nearly all of the standard closed-circuit ball-mill and rod-mill tests made to date are included in the present tabulation, together with additional information not previously published. Standard Ball-mill Grindability Tests The method of conducting these closed-circuit tests has not been altered. A sample of the ore or other material is stage-crushed in rolls set at 1/16-in. opening with a 6-mesh screen until all of it has passed the screen. The combined minus 6-mesh screen undersize is mixed, sampled and screen-analyzed, and its apparent specific gravity is determined by packing and shaking in a standard container, and weighing. The apparent specific gravity ordinarily is about 60 per cent of the true specific gravity. The unit volume present in the mill .in all tests is 700 C.C. of the packed minus 6-mesh roll product, and the number of grams occupying 700 C.C. is the unit test weight. This weight is placed in the mill dry, ground for the number of revolutions estimated to be necessary, discharged, and screened mechanically in three testing sieves of the mesh size at which the test is to be conducted. The oversize, or circulating load, is weighed, sufficient fresh minus 6-mesh feed is added to bring the total weight up to that of 700 c.c., and the charge is returned to the mill for a second grinding period. All standard ball-mill tests are conducted at 250 per cent circulating load, and the number of revolutions in the mill necessary to obtain this circulating load at any grinding period is estimated from the results of the previous period. The number of net grams of screen undersize produced per revolution of the mill approaches its final equilibrium value after several grinding periods, and this is recorded as the grindability, or relative ease of grinding, of the sample. A cylindrical ball mill, 12 by 12 in. inside, with a smooth lining and rounded corners, is used with a revolution counter Under standard grinding conditions it runs at 70 r.p.m., and contains a charge of 285 iron balls weighing 20,125 grams, ranging from I½ to ¾ in. in diameter. Tests are conducted at the mesh size to which the ore is to be ground in practice, and the capacity- to be expected from a given mill is calculated by comparing the grindability with that of a similar standard ore whose performance characteristics arc known. No satisfactory general formula for convertillg standard grindabilities into corn; rnercial power-consumption values has been

Jan 1, 1943

By A. L. Foell

THE development of the modern blast furnace began more than one hundred years ago, with the abandonment of the small hillside furnaces. Its development, especially during the past 50 years, has been accomplished through a rapid succession of enlargements and improvements. The remarkable growth in furnace output during this period is a tribute to the engineers and operators who have constantly endeavored to build larger and more efficient blast furnaces. The blast-furnace operators and their mechanical and electrical maintenance staffs have originated most of the furnace improvements as a result of their practical operating experience. FURNACE LINES About 50 years ago furnaces consisted of hearths about 11 ft. in diameter, which merged into rather high flat boshes, with no cylindrical section between the bosh and inwall and no cylindrical section at the stock line. Since then the lines of the furnace invariably have included a cylindrical section above the bosh and a cylindrical section at the stock line. Notable increases have been made in both hearth diameters and furnace heights. During the past 10 years hearth diameters in new and replaced furnace stacks have rather consistently fallen within the range of 25 to 28 ft. while their heights have varied between 100 and 106 ft. The lines of most large furnaces using Mesabi ores have followed a fairly uniform pattern (Fig. I) in which the principal dimensions for 25-ft. hearth furnaces are as follows: [Hearth diameter 25 ft. o in. Height of bosh 10 ft. o in. Bosh angle 8 1 ½° Diameter top of bosh 28 ft. o in. Inwall batter per foot 15/16 Stock-line diameter 19 ft. 6 in. Large-bell diameter 14 ft. 6 in. Height from iron notch to top ring casting 100 ft. o in.] In determining the size of a new furnace for the replacement of an existing stack or for an addition to productive capacity, it is not possible to formulate a procedure that can always be followed. Local conditions, requirements as to capacity, available raw materials and prospects for future expansion dictate the size of such proposed improvements or additions. However, where the immediate requirements indicate a stack or furnace of a certain productive capacity, and the future prospects indicate that more capacity can be utilized, it is well to consider building the furnace for the ultimate capacity rather than to install a smaller hearth with provision for future enlargement. The decision to build the larger hearth and stack for the ultimate capacity probably will require no greater initial investment, since the saving in the cost of brickwork will about offset the greater cost of the hearth jacket, tuyere breast and bosh bands. In the meantime, the furnace of larger hearth dimensions, while operating below its ultimate output, will yield a better coke rate and

Jan 1, 1942

By Arthur F. Taggart

ENGINEERING education today is like a crazy quilt of somber wools and gaudy shoddy, chain-stitched on an academic assembly line, and sold at ever mounting prices to inexperienced youths for lifetime use. Each engineering school offers a half-dozen or so patterns with essentially the same skimpy wool content. Sales appeal is in the color of the shoddy, denoted by the hopeful adjectives chemical, civil and the like. This article is argument for an all wool product made by slow, careful handwork. Bluntly it proposes a thorough four-year undergraduate drill in fundamental science and general engineering empirics, leavened by continuing study of the third of the engineer's troubles: Man. It is not contended that existing methods of engineering education have failed to start men on the path to successful engineering practice (too many of you have started that way); rather, social conditions and the bounds of knowledge have changed tremendously, and corresponding alterations in the pattern of engineering education are overdue. We'll Teach the Specifics The first part of this contention is illustrated by excerpts from a letter received recently from an officer of one of the largest corporations: "We are interested in employing two or three outstanding young engineers to be placed on a special training program to develop them as design and construction engineers.... "We propose to put these men on a four-month indoctrination and orientation course after which they would be given job-training assignments for a period that will vary from about six months to about a year and a half depending upon the aptitudes, abilities and intelligence of the candidates.... "I am not too fussy about what kind of engineers the men might be insofar as academic courses are concerned. They could be.. . in almost any engineering classification.... We can furnish the additional training beyond the academic fundamentals. "The starting rate for these jobs would be $326 per month...." This letter is not unique; rather it is representative of a practice that has become common. It is industry's enforced response to the general refusal by young graduates to submit to union domination in order to gain operating experience at the labor level. The message to engineering schoolteachers is plain: You teach the fundamentals; we'll teach our practice and pay the graduate to learn it. The letter means to the student that time spent in school studying the specific practices of particular industries is waste compounded. The school can't give the equivalent of what industry teaches, wherefore industry will still demand apprenticeship. The student must pay for the specific instruction at school instead of being paid to take it later. And time-consuming specifics crowd out drill in basic scientific and technical subjects as well as liberal arts.

Jan 1, 1952

By S.S. Clarke

The sheet-ground deposits of the Tri-State district, because they are fairly uniform in thickness (7 to II ft.)—rather flat, with an easy dip to the west—and cover a large acreage, offered a problem of improved transportation. Heading advance in this kind of mine is very rapid and track haulage requires a larger crew of trackmen than do other mines, and a heavy investment in track. The use of some type of rubber-tired truck equipment for underground haulage was under consideration for some time by the Eagle-Picher Mining and Smelting Co. The nature of some ore bodies made them not adaptable to truck haulage and some mines that did offer possibilities were equipped with other types of haulage, and the expected savings by the use of trucks did not offset the loss of investment that would be incurred in discarding other equipment. The decision was made to sink a new shaft, designed for skip hoisting, on the Blue Goose ore body, and then develop truck equipment. Developing Tractors and Trailers A study was made of internal-combustion engines for power units in the tractors, but the extreme difficulty of controlling air circulation, and the heavy cost of drilling large churn drill holes for blower installations, led to the adoption of a tractor with a storage battery. The storage-battery tractor that was on the market for mine haulage was impossible to obtain because all were needed for defense work. Several standard electric-truck chassis were purchased and rebuilt in the Eagle-Picher shops. The steering wheel was shortened and set vertical, permitting the driver's seat to be moved forward, and the frame was shortened enough to take the battery box and the fifth wheel support that carried the gooseneck of the dump trailer. The fifth wheel, or turntable, is of the ball and socket type. Tig. I shows the ball fastened to the gooseneck. The socket is split to permit introduction of the ball and is held by through-bolts, and the socket is welded to a ½-in. plate, which in turn is attached to the tractor frame. Smaller wheels and tires were put on to reduce over-all height. If it had been necessary, the spring: could have been reversed, or taken off entirely, to gain additional clearance. The tractors are equipped with 48-cell, 23-plate, 400-A.H. batteries. With the initial tonnage and mileage, the batteries were about 50 per cent down at the end of a shift. Tractors have truck tires 7.50 by 20, 8-ply, front and rear, the rear being dud. After four months of use, the .tires are beginning to show signs of failure.* In

Jan 1, 1943

By S. S. Clarke

The sheet-ground deposits of the Tri-State district, because they are fairly uniform in thickness (7 to II ft.)—rather flat, with an easy dip to the west—and cover a large acreage, offered a problem of improved transportation. Heading advance in this kind of mine is very rapid and track haulage requires a larger crew of trackmen than do other mines, and a heavy investment in track. The use of some type of rubber-tired truck equipment for underground haulage was under consideration for some time by the Eagle-Picher Mining and Smelting Co. The nature of some ore bodies made them not adaptable to truck haulage and some mines that did offer possibilities were equipped with other types of haulage, and the expected savings by the use of trucks did not offset the loss of investment that would be incurred in discarding other equipment. The decision was made to sink a new shaft, designed for skip hoisting, on the Blue Goose ore body, and then develop truck equipment. Developing Tractors and Trailers A study was made of internal-combustion engines for power units in the tractors, but the extreme difficulty of controlling air circulation, and the heavy cost of drilling large churn drill holes for blower installations, led to the adoption of a tractor with a storage battery. The storage-battery tractor that was on the market for mine haulage was impossible to obtain because all were needed for defense work. Several standard electric-truck chassis were purchased and rebuilt in the Eagle-Picher shops. The steering wheel was shortened and set vertical, permitting the driver's seat to be moved forward, and the frame was shortened enough to take the battery box and the fifth wheel support that carried the gooseneck of the dump trailer. The fifth wheel, or turntable, is of the ball and socket type. Tig. I shows the ball fastened to the gooseneck. The socket is split to permit introduction of the ball and is held by through-bolts, and the socket is welded to a ½-in. plate, which in turn is attached to the tractor frame. Smaller wheels and tires were put on to reduce over-all height. If it had been necessary, the spring: could have been reversed, or taken off entirely, to gain additional clearance. The tractors are equipped with 48-cell, 23-plate, 400-A.H. batteries. With the initial tonnage and mileage, the batteries were about 50 per cent down at the end of a shift. Tractors have truck tires 7.50 by 20, 8-ply, front and rear, the rear being dud. After four months of use, the .tires are beginning to show signs of failure.* In

Jan 1, 1943

By T. J. Nowak

The heat flow processes determining the injection and shut-in temperature logs in a water injection well have been analyzed and the theoretical basis for determining the water injectivity profiles from the temperature logs has been presented. Both the injection and the subsequent shut-in logs are necessary to resolve the injection interval into relative water intake strata; the former, to provide an accurate estimation of the thicknesses of the strata, and the latter to indicate the major and minor intake rates into the strata. A procedure is described for estimating the injectivity profile from the temperature logs and is applied to several temperature logs. For a water injection well, a comparison is made of the injectivity profiles obtained from the core analysis, the spinner survey, and the temperature logs. INTRODUCTION In secondary recovery of oil by water flooding, the injectivity profile is needed to obtain diagnostic evaluation of water intake distribution over the injection interval. If the distribution is unfavorable among the various strata, corrective measures can be taken to provide better control. Numerous methods have been developed for determining the injectivity profile from water velocity measurements in well bores. Often, dependence is placed upon core analyses and/or electric logs for estimating the relative water intakes over the injection interval. In many cases, the temperature log method described herein will give results more diagnostic than those obtained through use of the other available methods inasmuch as it is based upon the study of temperature disturbances in and around the well bore as a function of water flow in the well bore and in the formation. This method is the result of analyses of a number of temperature surveys made in water injection wells to determine the point of entry of the water into the formation. The material in this paper is presented in two sections: the first deals with the theoretical study of temperature survey data, and the second deals with the field application. PART I — THEORETICAL TREATMENT OF TEMPERATURE LOG DATA Before discussing the various aspects of heat flow relative to temperature log data, the phenomena that give rise to well bore temperatures — namely, the indigenous formation temperature and the associated rates of heat flow — will be considered. Geothermal Gradient The geothermal gradient is defined as the increment of depth at which the indigenous subsurface temperature increases by l°. It is caused by the continuous flow of heat outward from the interior of the earth. The flow of heat is an equilibrium process between the heat sources, the thermal conductivities of the formations, and the mean surface temperature. Therefore, there is no accumulation of heat energy in the path of heat transmission, and the geothermal gradient for a given formation will depend upon its thermal conductivity.

Jan 1, 1953