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By B. Silliman

THE remarkable outflow of natural gas recently developed in Western Pennsylvania, and along the valley of the Ohio and its tributaries, has called attention to an important series of patents for improvements in glass-fnrnaces and the manufacture of glass, which the brothers Siemens have made since 1872. The basement-patent of this series, is No. 127,806 of the U. S. Patent office, and is of date June 11th, 1872. This has been followed by eleven other patents (including one re-issue), all for improvements in glass-furnaces, or methods of manufacture, of which the latest is of date July 11th, 1882. Nine of these patents were issued in 1880-82. The following is the list of these patents, in order of dates, viz.: 1872. June 11th. No. 127,806 (U. S. office), Improvement in glass-furnaces; 17 sheets drawings, 5 pages text. This is the basement-patent. 1877. April 17th. No. 139,800. Improvement in the manufacture of glass; 3 sheets drawings, 2 pages text. Boats and floating vessels swimming in the liquid glass of the tank-furnace. Re-issued in 1880. q. v. 1880. April 27th. No. 226,931. Furnace for annealing and tem pering glass. " July 13th. No. 220,846. Glass-melting-furnace. " August 3d. No. 230,668. Glass-melting-furnace; 4 sheets drawings, 2 pages text.

Jan 1, 1885

By Terkel Rosenqvist

J. Chipman (Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Mass.)—The fact that the experimental work has been applied to copper rather than iron and that the paper is presented to the Iron and Steel Division, I regard as rather significant. It shows the unity of metallurgy and the fallacy of trying to cut it up by metals. This result for the solubility of sulphur in molten copper correlates with Professor Schuhmann's finding that the published data on the other side of the copper-sulphur miscibility gap are also in error. I should like to ask the author to say a little bit more about the sulphur capacity of the slag. T. Rosenqvist (author's reply)-—I hope that Dr. Chipman will find the derivation of the expression for sulphur capacity more clearly explained in the printed version of the paper than in the oral discussion at the meeting. I feel that this quantity, which actually is the ratio of two activities, can be measured more easily than the individual activities. Even if the ratio CaO/CaS is chosen as the standard state, the expression can be used for any slag, even for slags completely free of lime, and it represents a way to put the desulphurizing power of all slag constituents into one bag. Some doubt has been expressed as to whether oxygen ions really exist in calcium oxide and in molten slags. From a thermodynamic view point that question is of minor importance. The term oxygen ion activity, or any activity for that matter, is defined rigorously by the equation: activity = exp p/RT, where p is the change in free energy connected with the transfer of one mol of ions from the standard state into the slag. Whatever happens to the ion in the slag is of no concern to the thermodynamicist. Regardless of whether the ion is "free" in the slag or not, or whether it is present in a very small amount, its activity can always be expressed, and for a thermo- dynamic calculation that is all we need. However, ionic activities will only be of some real value if they are simple functions of the slag composition, or can be measured easily. Concerning the real nature of the oxygen in the slag, my feeling is that the oxygen atom has a rather multiplex nature depending on how strongly it is tied by covalent forces or polarized by the other atoms or ions present. The oxides of iron, cobalt, and nickel differ from calcium oxide and blast furnace slags as to the amount of free electrons that can give rise to electronic conductivity. In slags we know that the conductivity is mostly ionic. The fact that reversible emf's can be obtained with oxygen electrodes in certain salt melts, indicates a significant amount of oxygen ions in these melts. But extended work, e.g. polaragraphic studies and measurements of transference number; are needed to obtain quantitative information about the real structure of the slags. D. E. Babcock (Republic Steel Corp., Youngstown, Ohio)—-With reference to the ion, it might be well to remember Dr. Moses Gomberg. All of his life he had no use for the ionization theory and he contributed greatly to the field of chemistry on the assumption there was no such thing as ions. I do not think we have to worry about whether the oxygen is ionic or not. I think one thing specifically should be brought to your attention and this I think is one of the important contributions of Dr. Rosenqvist. He pointed out what we know as oxygen potentials or what is described as oxygen potentials. I have used this concept for a long period of time and I want to state that if this concept is properly applied, it vitiates much of what we have in the literature, or makes our usual ideas regarding oxidation seem primitive. That one thing is more valuable than almost all the rest of the discussion as a fundamental basis on which to build a reasonable in-

Jan 1, 1952

By Howard S. Bryant

Kansas maintained its fourth position on the list of all oil-producing states, for the ninth consecutive year. Total crude-oil production during 1935, as reported by the Oil & Gas Journal, was 53,364,446 bbl. on 97 per rent tank table calculations. This represented an increase of 17 per cent over the production in 1934, which had been the all-time peak of production in Kansas up to that time. Many of the 51 new discoveries of the year, listed in Table 2, did not have a pipe line outlet until about January, 1936; therefore did not contribute to the 1935 production of the state. The potential of all wells in Kansas at the end of the year was 998,-000 bbl. per day, and the daily allowable was 143,000 bbl. per day, showing proration to the extent of 14 per cent of capacity, under the rules of the State Corporation Commission. Several important new pipe lines were built into western Kansas by extending older lines from east to northwest, providing additional outlets for new crude-oil production, and increasing the service facilities from the older oil fields. The crude-oil price level remained unchanged throughout 1935 as it did in 1934, the price of Kansas 36" gravity crude being quoted at $1 per barrel. However, on Jan. 9, 1936, the price of this gravity oil was raised to $1.10 per barrel. Following the trend of the past several years, drilling activity was largely in western Kansas, and showed a still farther westward push from last year. A relatively high percentage of successful wildcat wells at a relatively shallow drilling depth, combined with the expiration of leased acreage assembled before the depression, caused the rapid exploration and development campaign, begun in 1934, to continue. This has caused the opening of more new fields in 1935 than during any previous year in the history of oil production in Kansas. A summary of the results of drilling in western Kansas is given in Table 2. Eastern Kansas had considerable drilling, showed six new fields or extensions of oil fields, but in the limited space of this paper such developments cannot be described.

Jan 1, 1936

By Howard S. Bryant

Kansas maintained its fourth position on the list of all oil-producing states, for the ninth consecutive year. Total crude-oil production during 1935, as reported by the Oil & Gas Journal, was 53,364,446 bbl. on 97 per rent tank table calculations. This represented an increase of 17 per cent over the production in 1934, which had been the all-time peak of production in Kansas up to that time. Many of the 51 new discoveries of the year, listed in Table 2, did not have a pipe line outlet until about January, 1936; therefore did not contribute to the 1935 production of the state. The potential of all wells in Kansas at the end of the year was 998,-000 bbl. per day, and the daily allowable was 143,000 bbl. per day, showing proration to the extent of 14 per cent of capacity, under the rules of the State Corporation Commission. Several important new pipe lines were built into western Kansas by extending older lines from east to northwest, providing additional outlets for new crude-oil production, and increasing the service facilities from the older oil fields. The crude-oil price level remained unchanged throughout 1935 as it did in 1934, the price of Kansas 36" gravity crude being quoted at $1 per barrel. However, on Jan. 9, 1936, the price of this gravity oil was raised to $1.10 per barrel. Following the trend of the past several years, drilling activity was largely in western Kansas, and showed a still farther westward push from last year. A relatively high percentage of successful wildcat wells at a relatively shallow drilling depth, combined with the expiration of leased acreage assembled before the depression, caused the rapid exploration and development campaign, begun in 1934, to continue. This has caused the opening of more new fields in 1935 than during any previous year in the history of oil production in Kansas. A summary of the results of drilling in western Kansas is given in Table 2. Eastern Kansas had considerable drilling, showed six new fields or extensions of oil fields, but in the limited space of this paper such developments cannot be described.

Jan 1, 1936

The opening session was held on Tuesday evening, June 28th. Mr. F. S. Witherbee, of Port Henry, a member of the Local Committee, welcomed the Institute as follows: Mr. President and Gentlemen and (if I my also add) Ladies of the Institute: In the absence of the Chairman of our Local Committee it is my pleasant duty to give you a cordial welcome once more to the shores of Lake Champlain. I think some fourteen years have passed by since we last had the pleasure of receiving you at a meeting in this vicinity ; but the pleasure of that meeting still lingers in our memory; and the profit which we derived from your discussions and from your presence with us has made us heartily desirous to have you here again. If the truth must be known, we were for a time much embarrassed by the difficulty of providing adeqriate and comfortable shelter for the large number of friends whom we hoped (and, as this assembly indicates, had good reason for hoping) to receive. But the liberality and zealous co-operation of the Delaware & Hudson Canal Company and its hotel manager, in offering to open Hotel Champlain, at no little inconvenience, before the usual time, presented a solution of this difficulty, provided the date originally proposed for the meeting could be changed to a week later. This change was duly authorized; .and I think you will all agree with us that it was wise.. At all events, I am sure, I now need offer no apologies for the roof which covers yau. During the fourteen years which have elapsed since your last visit to us, great strides have been made in the industrial development of this country. The meetings of the Institute, held from one end of the land to the other, have permitted you to witness the transformation of small hamlets? like Birmingham, Ala., into populous and thriving industrial centers. You have seen the Minnesota and the

Jan 1, 1893

Among the recent bulletins are the following, which. may be obtained from the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. BULLETIN 127. Gold dredging in the United States, by Charles Janin. 1918. 224 pp;, 63 pls., 23 figs. 50 cents. BULLETIN 161. California mining statutes annotated, by J. W. Thompson. 01918. 312 pp. Paper cover 20 cents. BULLETIN 169. Illinois mining statutes annotated, by J. W. Thompson. 1918. 594 pp. Paper cover 35 cents. The. Potash Situation, by A. W. Stockett. 13 pp. Preparation of Crucible Graphite, by George D. Dub. 27 pp. National Importance of Allocating Low-ash Coke to the Manganese-alloy Furnaces, by P. H. Royster. 4 pp. Production of Ferromanganese in Blast Furnaces, by P. H. Royster. 31 pp. Production of Spiegeleisen in Blast Furnaces, by. P. H. Royster. 19 pp.

Jan 6, 1919

By W. F. Boericke

THE recent completion by the United States Aluminum Company of a $4,000,000 addition to its plant at Massena, N. Y., consisting of a large blooming mill and structural mill, gives this organization, a subsidiary of the Aluminum Company of America, the distinction of possessing the largest aluminum rolling mill in the world, as well as the first mil1 in this country to roll aluminum exclusively. The plant is located near the international boundary line between Canada and the United States, about 3 miles from the St. Lawrence River, to take advantage of the development of cheap hydroelectric power which is needed not only for the manufacture of structural shapes from the ingots, but in the reduction of alumina to the metal by the well-known Hall process as well. A power canal from the St. Lawrence River to the power house on the Grasse River at the plant provides for the waterflow, which, coupled with a drop of 47 ft. in 2% miles, generates 80,000 hp. through vertical turbines. An additional 60,000 hp. is purchased.

Jan 1, 1930

By Waldemar Lindgren

I. Character of the Deposits, 226: Principal Features, 226 (Form, 227; Posi tion, 227 ; Constituent Minerals, 227 ; Exceptions, 228) ; Literature, 228 ; Geo graphic Distribution, 230 ; (California, 230 ; Idaho, 231 ; Arizona, 233 ; British Columbia, 233; Northwest Territory, 234 ; Mexico, 234; Other Countries, 235). 11. Origin oF the Deposits, 236 : Contact-Metamorphism, 236; Caw of Contact Metamorphism, 237 ; Similar Deposits of Different Origin, 240; Genetic Classifi cation, 240 ; Relation of Pegmatite- Veins to Ore-Deposits, 242. I.—Character of the Deposits. 1. Principal Features. In many schemes of classification and description the term contact-deposit has been somewhat loosely applied to all accumu-

Jan 1, 1902

By H. W. Schadler

Single crystals of tungsten, which were grown by electron bombardment floating zone refining, were strained 2 pet in tension and bending at 298°, 77°, and 20°K to determine the modes and crystallography of the plastic deformation of these temperatures. At 77° and 20°K plastic deformation occurs by slip on systems of the type (011) [111] and by twinning on (112)-type planes. For crystals strained at 298°K, deformation occurs by slip in [111] directions on either (Oil)- or (112)-type planes. CURRENT models for the initiation of brittle fracture in crystalline materials are based on a knowledge of the details of their plastic deformation.1 Body-centered cubic tungsten exhibits brittle failure at temperatures below about 500 °K yet the modes and crystallography of its plastic deformation have not been studied below 1000°K. In 1924, Goucher2 reported that tungsten single crystals with a total impurity content of less than 0.01 wt pet deformed by slip on the (112) [111] system in the temperature range 1000° to 3000°K. He also observed (001) [010] slip in one crystal which was constrained by the presence of a large fissure. According to Barrett3 tungsten also deforms by twinning on the (112) plane in the [111] direction, but he gives no details on the tendency for twin formation or the temperature range in which twinning occurs. Therefore, as a necessary part of a study of the factors influencing the brittle fracture of tungsten, the modes and crystallography of the plastic deformation were determined at 298°, 77°, and 20°K. Tungsten single crystals, grown using the electron-bombardment zone-refining technique first described by Calverly,4 were deformed to between 1 and 2 pet plastic strain in tension and bending. The surface offset resulting from slip or twinning was observed with an optical microscope to determine the crystallography of the deformation. The existence of twins was proven by the standard polishing and etching technique; and the crystallography of dislocation motion was followed using the dislocation etchant described by Wolff.5 Some observations on the fracture characteristics of tungsten single crystals are included. EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES Growth, Purity, and Perfection of the Crystals-Several years ago Calverly, Davis, and Lever4 dem-onstrated the feasibility of growing tungsten single crystals by the electron-bombardment floating zone-refining technique, and Carlson6 showed that crystals produced in this way had a high degree of purity and were ductile at room temperature. Tungsten single crystals produced by this technique in equipment similar to that described by Carlson were used in this study. The starting material, a powder metallurgy product, was obtained in the form of a swaged 1/8-in. rod from the General Electric Wire Plant in Cleveland, Ohio. The crystals were grown from this material in a vacuum of 10"4 mm of Hg by passing a molten zone 1/8 in. long down the rod twice at a speed of 3 mm per min. At this zone speed

Jan 1, 1961

Jan 1, 1951

Jan 1, 1951

Colorado Geological Survey, Boulder, Colo. R D George, State Geologist. The following publications of the Survey may be obtained as long as the supply lasts, at the indicated price. Bulletin 3, Geology and ore deposits of the Alma district (1910), 25 cents, 4, Geology and ore deposits of the Monarch and Tomichi districts, Chaffee and Gunnison counties (1912), can be had together with 5, pt 1, Geology of the Rabbit Ears region and pt. 2, Permian or " Permo-Carbonif erous " of the Eastern Foothills of the Rocky Mountains in Colorado, for 50 cents; 7, Bibliography of Colorado geology and mining literature (1914), 25 cents, 8, The clays of eastern Colorado (1915), 25 cents, 9, Geology and ore deposits of Bonanza district (1915), 25 cents, 10, Geology and ore deposits of Gold Brick district (1916), 25 cents, 13, Geology and ore deposits of the Platoro-Summitville district (1917), 25 cents; 14, Molybdenum deposits of Colorado (1919), 25 cents; 15, Manganese deposits of Colorado (1919), 25 cents (14 and 15 in one volume, 35 cents); 17, Twin Lakes district (1921), 25 cents. Bulletin 18, Fluorspar deposits of Colorado (1920), 25 cents, 21, The geology of the Ward region, Boulder County (1921), 50 cents, 22, Mineral deposits of the Western Slope (1921), 25 cents, 24, Some anticlines of western Colorado (1924), 50 cents; 27 (in three parts) pt 3, Geology of parts of Las Animas, Otero and

Jan 1, 1933

By Daniel R. Hull

In 1926 Gendersl reviewed the existing theories of this subject and stated his views in support of the gas-pressure theory. Again, in 1937, the subject was thoroughly reviewed by N. B. Vaughan3 and by Phillips and Brick,2 so that no résumé is called for here. The purpose of this paper is to describe certain observations made in the course of mill work, and to point out that they mostly tend to confirm the gas theory of Genders. Vapor Segregation There is, however, one type of inverse segregation that can be accounted for by considering the volatility of one of the constituents of an alloy. The most familiar case is ordinary brass, which is subject to a zinc enrichment of a few tenths of a per cent at the surface of a chill casting. This has been noted in 70-30 brass by Genders, and a typical example of it is given in Table 1, which represents a cylindrical billet 7 in. in diameter by 55 in. long. After lathe-turning 1/32 in. from the surface, the remaining distance to the center was sampled at six equally spaced intervals. the lead, which is essentially the same throughout, will be mentioned later. Consider a brass-mill mold, either round or rectangular in cross section, standing several feet high. It may require a minute or two for pouring. Before it is full, the metal in the lower end has partly solidified and contracted somewhat away from the mold. The initial shell of solidification follows not far behind the top of the column, even if the central portion is liquid for a long way down. There is, then, a space between metal and mold that is filled with zinc vapor. The vapor has no exit, because the liquid at the top of the rising column is not only in contact with the mold but keeps UP a fresh supply of zinc vapor, which has, perhaps, already begun to condense in the lower portion. The cycle is short. Within a minute or two after the mold is full the bar has cooled enough to condense all the zinc. Some of it may condense on the mold; it might be expected that most of it would condense there, but the mold at that time is well coated with a velvety carbon residue from the oil dressing, overlain by fluffy zinc oxide that commenced covering the inside of the mold as soon as pouring began. The clean skin of the freshly cast brass offers a preferred surface for condensation. Reabsorption is quick and inevitable. A simple experiment indicates that a surprisingly large quantity of zinc vapor is trapped in the space between mold and

Jan 1, 1941

By Daniel R. Hull

In 1926 Gendersl reviewed the existing theories of this subject and stated his views in support of the gas-pressure theory. Again, in 1937, the subject was thoroughly reviewed by N. B. Vaughan3 and by Phillips and Brick,2 so that no résumé is called for here. The purpose of this paper is to describe certain observations made in the course of mill work, and to point out that they mostly tend to confirm the gas theory of Genders. Vapor Segregation There is, however, one type of inverse segregation that can be accounted for by considering the volatility of one of the constituents of an alloy. The most familiar case is ordinary brass, which is subject to a zinc enrichment of a few tenths of a per cent at the surface of a chill casting. This has been noted in 70-30 brass by Genders, and a typical example of it is given in Table 1, which represents a cylindrical billet 7 in. in diameter by 55 in. long. After lathe-turning 1/32 in. from the surface, the remaining distance to the center was sampled at six equally spaced intervals. the lead, which is essentially the same throughout, will be mentioned later. Consider a brass-mill mold, either round or rectangular in cross section, standing several feet high. It may require a minute or two for pouring. Before it is full, the metal in the lower end has partly solidified and contracted somewhat away from the mold. The initial shell of solidification follows not far behind the top of the column, even if the central portion is liquid for a long way down. There is, then, a space between metal and mold that is filled with zinc vapor. The vapor has no exit, because the liquid at the top of the rising column is not only in contact with the mold but keeps UP a fresh supply of zinc vapor, which has, perhaps, already begun to condense in the lower portion. The cycle is short. Within a minute or two after the mold is full the bar has cooled enough to condense all the zinc. Some of it may condense on the mold; it might be expected that most of it would condense there, but the mold at that time is well coated with a velvety carbon residue from the oil dressing, overlain by fluffy zinc oxide that commenced covering the inside of the mold as soon as pouring began. The clean skin of the freshly cast brass offers a preferred surface for condensation. Reabsorption is quick and inevitable. A simple experiment indicates that a surprisingly large quantity of zinc vapor is trapped in the space between mold and

Jan 1, 1941

By R. I. Jaffee, F. C. Holden, H. R. Ogden, A. G. Imgram

The tensile and notch tensile properties of four refractory metals (molybdenum, tungsten, niobium (columbium), and tantalum) and one alloy (Mo-0.5Ti) were investigated. All the materials were evaluated in bar form, and the molybdenum and Mo-0.5Ti also were studied in sheet form. The notch sensitivity of each material was evaluated on the basis of several criteria, including the notch-unnotch strength ratio, the ductility transition, and the fracture transitions. USE of refractory metals as structural materials in aircraft and space vehicles may subject them to low-as well as high-temperature environments. At elevated temperatures, the usefulness of a material usually is limited either by strength considerations

Jan 1, 1962

By James K. Stanley

IRON-COBALT alloys in the range of 35-50 pct cobalt are of interest in the electrical industry because they possess the highest magnetic saturation of any magnetic material known.1,2 The magnetic saturation induction of the 35 pct alloy is 24,200 gausses, compared to 21,600 for pure iron (Fig I). This difference is significant in electrical apparatus, where weight or space is at a premium. Saturation values higher than that for iron can be attained up to about 70 pct Co but economics restrict the use to as low a cobalt content as possible without sacrifice of saturation. Fig 2 shows the iron-cobalt equilibrium diagram. Up to the present time, two factors have retarded the use of iron-cobalt alloys in the electrical industry for magnetic purposes.† One is the high cost of cobalt ($1.50 per pound) and the other is the inherent brittleness of the binary iron-cobalt alloys. Straight iron-cobalt alloys up to 25 pct cobalt are ductile and easy to process to thin sheet or strip by conventional methods of hot and cold rolling, but the alloys containing higher percentages of cobalt, including those for which the saturation magnetization is a maximum (35 to 40 pct), are increasingly brittle with increasing cobalt, at least up to 50 pct, and are consequently difficult to process, either hot or cold. Work by White and Wah13 indicated that iron-cobalt alloys could be made ductile by alloying with vanadium, and after quenching the alloys (vanadium up to about 4 pct) were found to be cold rollable to very thin gauges. With this as a background, we resumed our work on these alloys with the objective of developing methods for economical commercial production of wide strip. For this purpose we have concentrated on the 35 pct alloy in order to obtain the highest possible saturation value. Experiments were carried out on many alloy additions to the iron-cobalt alloys and on the response of these compositions to heat treatments. This work finally culminated in a commercially producible iron-cobalt alloy which has been named Hiperco. * MATERIALS STUDIED AND PROCEDURE Binary alloys of iron and cobalt in the range of 35 pct cobalt are difficult to hot work (by forging or rolling) without such additions as C, Mn, Si, V, Cr, Mo, W or perhaps others. Another beneficial effect of such additions is that they in-crease to a greater or less extent the strangely low electrical resistivity of these alloys (about 10 microohms per cm3

Jan 1, 1947

By W. E. Brigham, P. W. Reed, J. N. Dew

By J. M. McDowell

A study has been made to deter~r~irre how the behavior of a water drivee reservoir changes as a function of the permeability of the formation and as a function of the size of the aquifer. The effect of pressure maintenance programs on the rote of nat11rn1 water influx is also studied, (IS well as the influence on the influx of the position of water injection we1ls with reference to the oil-water contact. The results are determined by the use of an electrical reservoir analyzer and are plotted as families of curves of pressure, natural water influx, and water injection vs time or cumulalive production. Two size aquifers are studided. One is limited with a 36-inile radius, and the, other approximates an infinite reservoir. The field remains the same in all respects for the completed. study except that the permeability is changed to agree with that assumed for the aquifer. 1 N TR ODUCTI ON this study was undertaken in -dcr to determine how the pres- sure decline and water influx of a water drive field would change as a function of the rate of fluid withdrawals, as a function of the permeability of the formation, and as a function of the size of the aquifer. The effect of pressure maintenance programs on the rate of natural water influx was also studied as was the position of water injection wells with reference to the oil-water contact. The information has been determined by the use of an electrical reservoir analyzer1, sometimes referred to as a Carter type analyzer. This instrument is an analog type computer which can be set up to represent a water-drive oil field. It can reproduce the past performance of the field in terms of analogous electrical quantities when the proper circuit analog of resistors and condensers has been determined, also, it can determine the future behavior for any method of production which may be selected, or permit the comparison among several different methods. Although most applications of the reservoir analyzer"" have been to thc study of specific field performance, it is intended to use the analyzer here to help understand how various reservoir characteristics effect the final performance of the field and to sec under what conditions water injection will be of benefit and to what extent. Within the oil industry the performance of water-drive reservoirs was first described analytically by LV. Hurst' and M. Muskat2 for certain types of boundary conditions. The solutions of the equations developed involved products of exponential functions and Bessel functions. Later publications by Hurst4 and van Ever-clingen" and the hooks of Muskat6 gave further information on reservoirs with other boundary conditions. They also presented rather extensive curves and tables to help evaluate the analytical expressions involved. A rccent series of publications by Chatas. bascd on the work of Hurst and van Everdingen, gives quite complete charts and tables of data to evaluate the pressure decline or water influx in infinite or limited radial reservoirs. and in linear reservoirs. The curves in all of these publications are given in dimensionless form

Jan 1, 1956

By E. W. Davis

THIS nation has been depending upon the Lake Superior iron ranges for most of its iron ore requirements for over half a century. Furthermore, it can continue to draw the major portion of its ore requirements from the same source for another century or more, but to accomplish this, great changes must take place in the present ore mining industry. Preliminary preparations for these changes are now underway and in the next few years decisions of far-reaching importance must be made. But to understand the situation, it is first necessary to know something of the nature and occurrence of the Lake Superior iron formation. So far as is known, the merchantable grades of iron ore remaining in the various Lake Superior ranges are as shown in Table 1, which shows that

Jan 1, 1947

By J. Robert Van Peli

IT was a strange but highly fruitful marriage-that union of hardy explorers, seeking the rich treasures of copper in the Lake Superior wilderness, with Boston's aristocracy of brains, capital, and enterprise. This historic wedlock, which has continued happily to the present day, was the means by which the wealth of Lake Superior's copper was won for the use and benefit of an expanding America. One branch of this family tree, the western branch, begins with prehistoric Indian miners, embraces the early French explorers of the Upper Lakes, and finally includes the British and American pioneers who reduced the vague rumors of copper to known fact and actually began the mining of copper in the wilderness. The other branch, the New England line, begins

Jan 1, 1948