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By Kehsin Kuo

DIE steel with 1.47 pct C, 0.42 pct Mn, and 8.22 pct W contains Fe,C and WC in the annealed state and WC embedded in a martensitic matrix in the hardened state (quenched from 800°C). The presence of a large amount of undissolved angular WC carbide particles makes this steel extremely wear-resistant. However, the WC carbide begins to dissolve in the austenite when the heating temperature is raised above 1000°C, but this solution process is still not complete at 1250°C although partial melting has already taken place at the austenite grain boundaries. At 1325 C, this steel contains austenite and liquid metal but no WC carbide, Fig. 1. On quenching into brine, the liquid metal solidifies into a constituent which etches differently from the austenite-martensite matrix. This constituent appears lighter than the matrix at the 1250°C stage when etched with 2 pct nital but darker in Fig. 1 when etched with Murakami's reagent. Such a constituent has also been found in burnt tungsten high speed steels. This constituent has been isolated from the matrix by anodic dissolution in a 5 pct HC1 electrolyte and was found by the X-ray powder method to be iso-morphous with &manganese, Table I. The agreement in line intensity between these two phases indicates that there is no ordering in this new phase. The calculated cube edge of this phase is 6.395A, somewhat larger than that of ß-manganese (6.30A). Besides this phase, the anodic residue also contains free carbon from the matrix and amorphous WO,, although the X-ray powder pattern of the residue shows the presence of only this phase. This makes it impossible to determine directly the composition of this phase from the residue. Attempts to prepare an alloy containing only this phase have hitherto been fruitless. The following experiments serve to show that this phase can only be obtained by drastic quenching from the liquid state and that its tungsten and carbon contents must be lower than those in the Fe,W,C carbide. On air cooling from 1325oC, the liquid metal solidifies into a eutectic consisting of austenite and the Fe3W3C carbide. The nature of this dark-etching Fe3W3C has also been ascertained by X-rays. This eutectic becomes coarser on furnace cooling. The solidification of a specimen cooled for 5 min from 1325" to 1200°C and water quenched is still not complete and the fine eutectic is formed during the quenching. Since this new phase can be replaced by a eutectic of austenite and the Fe,W,C carbide, its composition must lie somewhere between the latter two phases. The special features of this phase are: 1—it can only form directly from the liquid state by drastic quenching and 2—it is a ternary phase of iron, tungsten, and carbon. The ß-manganese structure of this phase is also interesting. In the Periodic Table, iron and tungsten lie on opposite sides of manganese; a certain combination of these two elements, in the presence of carbon, may have average properties similar to those of manganese. It has already been established that the x phase, a ternary one of iron, chromium, and molybdenum, has the a-manganese structure."' A similar phase has also been found in the ternary system Fe-Cr-W and in the following binary systems: Re-Cb, Re-Ta, Re-Mo, and Re-W.6 References 1 G. D. Preston: Philosovhical Magazine 11928) 5. 7th Series, p. 1207. - K. W. Andres: Nature (1949) 164, p. 1015. 35. G. McMullin, S. F. Reiter, and D. G. Eberling: Trans. ASM 11954) 46, p. 799. ' J. S. Kasuer: Acta Metallurgica (19541 2, p. 456. • H. J. Goldschmidt: Trans. ASM (19541 46, p. 807. P. Greenfield and P. A. Beck: Private communication.

Jan 1, 1957

By H. B. Charmbury, D. R. Mitchell

Everyone in the coal industry from top management to the preparation engineer is vitally interterested in recovering as much salable coal as possible from the run-of-mine product. Coal losses from a preparation plant occur in the solid refuse material being discharged from the plant and in the bleed-off slurry from the water circuit. The refuse is generally hauled from the plant in solid form by trucks, conveyors, or aerial trams to the refuse or culm banks or it may be crushed and transported by hydraulic methods to refuse ponds or dams. The loss of coal in refuse material and the extent of this problem has been covered in another paver.' The loss of salable coal in the plant bleed-off slurry is one of the water circuit problems in coal preparation plants. Slurries originate at various places in the processing circuits and are usually disposed of by transportation to waste ponds known as slurry ponds. Even though the combustible material discharged as slurry and refuse from the plant is labeled a loss, the loss must only be considered temporary. There is a tendency at the present time to examine refuse and slurry losses and to reprocess these materials to recover valuable coal. Slurries from eight bituminous coal preparation plants in central and western Pennsylvania have been sampled and examined to determine the amount of recoverable coal in each. Examinations of the samples were made to determine the tons per hour of solids and the gallons per minute of water in the slurry; the size, ash, and sulfur analyses of the solids; and the sink-float characteristics of the larger solids. The extreme fines (—325 mesh material) from one of the samples has been examined further to determine the micron size fractions as well as the ash and sulfur content of the micron sizes. Collection of the Samples: Field trips were made to each of the plants where samples were obtained and discussions held with the preparation engineer prior to sampling. The flowsheet of the plant operation was studied and a time-period selected to obtain a representative sample. At least 20 1-gal samples of total plant bleed-off suspensions were collected at each plant in increments over designated periods belived to be typical of the plant flow Three of the samples were obtained from plants in the Pittsburgh area. Each plant supplied information on the capacity, operating time, type of cleaning equipment used, water and material balances, and auxiliary equipment. From the time required to collect given amounts of slurry and from the amount of solids in the slurry, total solids discharges from the plant were calculated and compared with the plant flow. Ash and sulfur analyses of the total solids were also checked, at some plants, with company figures. In all cases where checks could be made there was reasonable agreement between company figures and those reported here. Analysis of the Slurries: Representative fractions of properly agitated samples were examined in the laboratory to determine the specific gravities of the slurries. The solids and water were separated by filtration to check the weight of each so that the percent of solids in the pulp could be determined. From the resulting data, presented in Table I, it may be seen that the percent solids in the slurries ranges from 2.8 to 39.0 and the amount of solids from 2.61 to 45.61 tph. Size Analysis of Solids: Representative fractions of the slurries were permitted to settle and the clear water was removed by siphoning. The solids were then wet-screened at 28, 35, 48, 65, 100, 150, 200 and 325 mesh. Results of the size analyses are presented in Table 11. These results indicate the extreme variation of sizes and in most cases the degree of fineness of the solids. The amount of —325 mesh ranges from 22.5 to 84.5 pct and the amount of+200 mesh from 8.3 to 69.1 pct.

Jan 1, 1961

By Albert E. Wiggin, Frederick Laist

Page I. Introduction............................470 II. The Sources and Amount of Slime................470 II. The Composition of the Slime..................471 IV. The Experimental Development of the .Anaconda Slime Plant.. 471 1. The Great Falls Slime Plant and Experimental Work......471 2. The Experimental Work Done at Anaconda..........473 (a) SlimeThickening Devices.............. 474 (b) SlimeConcentrators................. 475 (c) Dewatering the Slime Plant Concentrate......... (d) The Use of Chemicals to Accelerate the Settlement of Slime........................ 478 (e) The Effect of Temperature upon the Settlement of Slime 478 V. A Description of the Anaconda Slime Plant........... 479 1. A Diagrammatic Flow Sheet of Plant............. 480 2. The Slime-Thickening Division................ 480 3. The Concentrating Division.................. 481 4. The Concentrate-Dewatering Division............. 483 5. General Data........................ 484 I. IntRoduction The new slime-concentrating plant at the Washoe Reduction Works, Anaconda, was put into operation during March, 1914. This plant, which has a capacity of 26,000,000 gal. of slime pulp carrying 2,500 tons of solid matter per day, consists of Dorr thickeners and Anaconda multiple-deck slime concentrators. This plant is the culmination of a great deal of experimental work extending over a considerable period of time, which , work will be described briefly in the following pages. II. The Sources and Amount of Slime Up to the beginning of this year, the ore from the Anaconda company's mines in Butte, Mont., has been concentrated both at the Great Falls

Jan 1, 1915

By JOHN LANE DYNAN

HE Tonopah Extension property consisted originally of three claims, with an area of 38 acres. In 1902 a shaft, now known as No. 1, was started near the eastern end of the property, close to the Tonopah Mining Co.'s boundary line, in the. andesite cap rock' which covers the ore-bearing formations in the western end of the Tonopah district. A short distance below the 60-ft. level, the orebodies pinched out, although the veins continued. This shaft has not been used since 1916. Before 1910, the production was small, coming mostly from small shoots of high-grade shipping ore. In that : year, the, company started its 30-stamp mill and cyanide plant; the mill was later enlarged to 50 stamps, with a corresponding increase in the cyanide-plant capacity, which brought the capacity of the mill up to 350 .tons per day. The total production of the mine to Oct. 1, 1920, is 871,177 tons of ore, from which was recovered 15,267,216 oz. of silver and 156,241 oz. of gold.' This makes an average recovery per ton of 17.5 oz. silver and 0.179 oz. gold. The average price received for silver since' the beginning of operations is 65.87 c. per oz., and the average value recovered from the ore-'is $15.25. The area of the property has been gradually increased by purchases and consolidations of adjoining ground until it is now 647 acres. A new shaft, known as No. 2, was started in 1912, 1600 ft. west .of No. 1, and in the following year a crosscut on the 750-ft. level of this shaft resulted in the discovery of the. Murray Vein system, from which the greatest prosperity of the mine has come. This vein, with its related veins,

Jan 1, 1921

By G. H. Wigton

THE oxidized ores of the Chief Consolidated Mining Co., in the Tintic mining district, have never yielded to metallurgical treatment by any standard method except smelting. These ores occur in comparatively small, irregular, siliceous replacements in limestone, and carry silver, lead, and gold as the principal valuable metals. But smelting methods. are unsatisfactory, as the lead smelters heavily penalize the large amount of silica in the ore, and the copper smelters do not pay for the lead in the ore; therefore, an alternative treatment method was sought. In 1916, a metallurgical research department was organized under; the direction of the writer. Many standard metallurgical methods were investigated but, on oxidized ore, none yielded extraction great enough to make its use feasible. During some chloridizing-roasting experiments in 1916, made in an assay muffle, the writer noted that large proportions of the silver, lead, and gold were volatilized from certain oxidized ores. The possibility of volatilizing the metals and collecting them in the form of a concentrated fume was then studied. But, as it was shown that satisfactory chloride-volatilization would be limited to a furnace feed with a high fusing temperature of the non-volatilizable constituents, and as the results obtained in a rotary kiln with the admixture of common salt with the ground ore were inferior to muffle tests, further volatilization experiments were discontinued until 1920. During this interval, an experimental sulfidizing and flotation plant was operated. After the cessation of attempts to float the oxidized minerals, chloride-volatilization experiments were resumed. The highly infusible flotation. tailing from the operation of the flotation mill was used for furnace feed. The first tests made on flotation tailing mixed with 10 per cent. common salt showed -nearly complete lead and gold volatilization but considerably less volatilization of silver than in muffle tests. In attempts to increase the silver extraction, the percentage salt in the furnace feed was varied, and it soon became apparent that the use of smaller percentages of salt raised the fusion temperature of the furnace charge and thus,

Jan 8, 1925

By J. F. Breedis

The stabilization of austenite in Fe-Ni alloys against martensitic transformation after reversion has been attributed' to the lattice imperfections remaining from previous transformation. More recently, however, such stabilization has been associatedzy3 with compositional changes which occur in martensite during slow heating. Dislocation arrangements in deformed austenitic stainless steels strongly influence transformation to martensite on quenching.4 Therefore, it is of interest to observe the transformation behavior of stainless steel after reversion, especially since previous studies have been confined to Fe-Ni alloys. The transformation-product morphology also differs in the two iron-alloy systems;6 plate martensite forms in the latter while stainless steel transforms to lath-type martensite. Samples of Fe-16 wt pct Cr-12 wt pct Ni (maximum C + N = 0.005 wt pct, 0 = 0.02 wt pct), prepared by vacuum melting and casting from high-purity components, were annealed at 900°C for 24 hr, after cold rolling to produce a 40-p grain diameter. The M, temperature of this alloy is -80°C and samples are fully austenitic after annealing. The amount of martensite present after quenching, annealing, and requenching was determined magnetically, to within 0.01 wt pct, using a vibrating specimen magnetometer. Nearly 14 pct of martensite forms during the initial quench in 1 min at -196°C. Two-min and 2-hr anneals were done in air and in evacuated quartz capsules, respectively. All specimens were electro-polished before making the magnetic measurements.

Jan 1, 1967

By Paul D. Martinka

Coal is the principal energy source for the American Electric Power System (AEP System), which generates and delivers more electric energy to its customers within a seven-state area than any other investor- owned electric public utility. The company expected to burn 21.5 million tons of coal in 1968 at its coal-fired, steam-electric generating stations. About 4.3 million tons, representing 20% of the firm's total annual requirement, was the expected yield of its captive coal mines; the other 17.2 million tons were to be purchased from commercial mines in Ohio, West Virginia, Virginia, Kentucky, Indiana, and Illinois. American Electric's largest captive coal mining operation is conducted by Central Ohio Coal Co., a subsidiary of Ohio Power Co., at the Muskingum mine in the Meigs Creek No. 9 coal field of southeastern Ohio. The mine was started in 1953 to produce the coal requirements of the Philo and Muskingum River generating plants of Ohio Power Co., and it has been supplying their annual requirements in the range of 2.5 to 3.5 million tons since that time. The Muskingum River plant is one of the major steam-electric generating stations on the AEP System. This plant began operation in 1953 with a 215-megawatt unit and now has five generating units with a total plant capacity of 1,495 megawatts. The addition of the 615-megawatt Unit 5 in the summer of 1968 increased the total annual coal requirement of the plant from 2.6 to 4.4 million tons. In order to produce the additional 1.8 million tons of coal for the Unit 5 addition and to exploit the remaining coal reserves at the Muskingum mine most economically, Central Ohio Coal Co. has undertaken a $41 million expansion and modernization program, involving the world's largest dragline and an electric railroad.

Jan 1, 1969

By E. M. Norris

Phosphate deposits are distributed widely over the earth's surface. Of the known areas of deposit, eight fields are of particular interest because of their vast reserves of high grade phosphatic material and the volume of their production that goes to the world's great consuming areas. These fields, in the order of their present economic importance, are situated respectively in Florida, French Morocco, Kola Peninsula of U.S.S.R., Tunisia and Algeria, Tennessee, Montana-Idaho-Wyoming-Utah, Ocean and Naru Islands in the Gilbert group, and in Egypt. The Rocky Mountain deposits have a comparatively low ranking in the phosphate trade of today, but this field contains one of the largest known reserves of phosphatic material, associated with which are recoverable trace minerals, which are of increasing importance in our national economy. The first discoveries of phosphate rock in the western states were recorded in Cache1 and Rich2 counties in Utah, respectively in 1889 and 1897. Mining operations were begun on these deposits near Montpelier, Idaho, in 1906. During the latter year geological studies of the phosphate beds were started by Weeks and Ferrier of the U. S. Geological Survey. These studies have been continued to the present day by a distinguished roster of the Survey's technicians. As a result of this systematic exploratory program, the Survey has published a series of bulletins, papers, and maps, which provide the mining public with a comprehensive study of the exposed

Jan 1, 1949

By G. Donald Emigh

WESTERN phosphate resources which lie in Ida- ho, Montana, Utah, and Wyoming, have seen great expansion of activity in recent years. Growth has been two-pronged: expansion in fertilizer use, and since 1949, into the elemental phosphorous industry. Elemental phosphorous, produced in the electric furnace, goes largely into chemical making. Phosphate ore was first recognized in the West about 1889. Production started in 1906, and for many years consisted of underground operations by small companies operating sporadically. In 1920 Anaconda Copper Mining Co. opened the underground Conda mine near Soda Springs in southeastern Idaho, and has maintained and increased its operations since then. About 1930 Montana Phosphate Products Co. began underground mining in Montana and has remained a steady producer. In 1945 San Francisco Chemical Co., one of the oldest companies in the western field, initiated strip mining at the Waterloo mine near Montpelier, Idaho, and later at Leefe mine near Sage Junction, Wyo. In1946 J. R. Simplot Co. began open pit mining at Gay mine near Fort Hall, Idaho. In 1950 Victor Chemical Works began underground development work in the area of Maiden Rock, south of Butte, Mont.: and has since mined there. Monsanto Chemical Co. began open pit mining near Soda Springs, Idaho, in 1951.

Jan 11, 1954

By Jerome F. Kuzmick

The use of iron powder during the postwar conversion period has been increasing with great rapidity. This is particularly true in regard to the manufacture of molded mechanical parts such as bushings, gears, cams, small wheels, and the like. Many manufacturers have found it possible to replace machined cast iron and carbon steel with molded iron powder parts, and thereby can not only effect a savings in cost, but can produce a better product as well. As the field of application for iron powder parts widens, greater demands are made upon the powder supplier concerning quality and uniformity characteristics. The following are some of the most important properties parts fabricators desire in the iron powder they use: 1. The powder should have high compressibility so that good density can be obtained without the use of excessive pressures. At the same time, it should show low die wear so that a large number of pieces can be produced from the die. This means that the powder must be of high purity and good softness or plasticity. 2. The powder should produce compacts of high green strength, so that unsintered parts can be handled without breakage or fraying of the edges. 3. The sintering properties should be good so that satisfactory strength is obtained in the sintered piece. 4. Compacts made from the powder should show small but, above all, uniform dimensional changes during the sintering operation so that accurate parts can be produced, and warping and other such bad effects eliminated. 5. The powder should have satisfactory flow properties for automatic molding. 6. It is very important that the powder be uniform in sieve analysis, compressibility, flow, purity, and other qualities, from container to container in any given lot and from shipment to shipment. 7. Price—The fabricators desire all these good properties, but in many instances still do not wish to pay a premium price. There has been considerable discussion as to the importance of price of the powder in relation to the cost of the finished product. It is true that in cases where certain special properties only procured by powder metallurgy are required, price is not a criterion. On the other hand, there have been a number of applications recently made which would not be commercially practical with a powder which commands a premium in price. Iron powder parts are compressed in automatic presses to definite size, shape, and density. The powder is compressed to a density figure dependent upon the function the part is to perform, as well as upon such important considerations as press capacity and die wear. Such parts can be roughly broken down into the following density ranges:

Jan 1, 1949

By W. A. Gibson, A. D. Trujillo

The Santa Rita copper deposit first served as a source of native copper for Indian implements and weapons. In 1801 Santa Rita copper, trans- ported by mule train to Chihuahua, began to be used commercially for making coins. It was a small- scale operation made difficult by Indian raids, transportation costs and depletion of the higher grade ores. There was, moreover, no known method for economically extracting copper from the under- lying low grade sulfide ores. Originally, copper and copper oxide ores were mined by underground methods, but there was virtually no development of the deposit-which became United States territory after the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848-for almost a hundred years. A number of small underground mines had been started during that time, but it was not until 1873 that all the principal claims were consolidated under one control.

Jan 1, 1966

A New Ingersoll-Rand Turbo Blower The Ingersoll-Rand Co. has added to its Turbo Compressors and Blowers a low-pressure machine t o handle volumes from 3,000 to 35,000 cu. ft. per minute at from 1-2 ½ lb. These are particularly adapted to such service as foundry cupola blowing, atomizing oil for oil burners, supplying blast to heating and annealing furnaces of various kinds, blowing air for water-gas generators, pneumatic conveying and ventilating. They are of the single stage, double flow type and are furnished either electric motor, steam turbine or water wheel driven.

Jan 6, 1916

By M. J. R. Morris

THE year 1939 has seen the iron and steel industry driving for efficiency with unabated zeal. "Efficiency" is here used in the sense of enabling the customer to do more with less, either supplying him with more economically priced steels or with higher priced steels that will do a job more economically. The plain carbon steels have been improved tremendously in quality be- cause of recent control tests. All steel companies have been urged to hold to .closer chemical control, closer standards, soundness, and more control on grain size, and now attention is being directed to closer control of hardening properties. Better control of open- hearth operations undoubtedly will result in an increase in the application of special carbon steel. Further, with a better understanding of quenching, the present trend to study the quenching of this class of steels will be ex- tended. These steels will then be used for purposes to which they are best suited. Utilization of special carbon bars and large shapes seems to be developing less slowly than special car- bon in the form of strip. There are many reasons for this and the future development of this trend will be important. Continued development of the manufacture of parts from strip and sheet to replace forgings, and of formed; structural members such as channels or welded pipe, is notable. Special carbon sheets with nonaging properties have been produced during the year; they maintain a higher degree of ductility over a longer time and are less sensitive to the changes which took place in the former product when stocked.

Jan 1, 1940

By V. J. Sikora, W. J. McGuire

Several years ago, we used an electric analogue computer to study the effect of vertical fractures on the productivity of wells in expanding fluid-drive reservoirs. The results of this work were used both as a guide to research and as a basis for the design of actual fracturing operations. In 1958, Dyes, Kemp and Caudle' published portions of the data from this study. The results were released in 1959 to service companies for use in fracturing guides. The purpose of this note is to discuss the experimental conditions and assumptions which were made to derive the information which is already partially a matter of public record. ASSUMPTIONS This study applies to fractures which extend in a vertical plane symmetrically from the well. For simplicity, we chose to study the case of a well in a square drainage area with its fractures extending toward two of its nearest neighbors. We have assumed no migration of fluid across the boundary of this area. The quadrant shown in Fig. 1 models this system. We made the usual assumptions that the reservoir is homogeneous and isotropic, that the fluid is homogeneous and that production is effected by fluid-expansion drive. We also assumed that the fracture extends from top to bottom of the reservoir. Of more practical interest is our assumption that the fracture does not change the size of the drainage area. This premise is appropriate if all the wells in the reservoir are fractured in the same way. But where a single well is fractured, its drainage area may be enlarged at the expense of its neighbors. This could be of economic importance. The assumption that the fracture will not extend beyond the established drainage area of the well also limits the application of the results. Such long frac- tures will yield benefits in excess of those predicted here. When we assume homogeneity, we disregard the frequently observed zone of damage in the vicinity of the well. Where damage is severe, the benefits resulting from by-passing it will far exceed those predicted by this study. All comparisons were made of systems producing in the semi-steady state. By this we mean that equal volumes contributed equally to flow (pressure was dropping at a uniform rate throughout the system) when the rate of flow was observed. EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP We used the pool unit of an electric analyzer' in this study. The squase drainage system of a well was rep-

By C. E. Coleman, D. Hardie, A. E. Wraith

A photoguaplric method of measuring crack velocities has been applied to an examilzation of- the effect of hydrogen on the impact properties of zirconium. Results indicate that the crack in hydrided zirconit travels at about 26 m per sec whereas that in the uacuum -annealed is dependent on the speed of the hammer. RECENT work on the effect of hydrogen on zirconium reveals that when hydrided zirconium is tested in slow bending the crack producing failure can be unstable. The mode of fracture seems to involve the crack linking up broken hydrides by a ductile mechanism in the zirconium matrix.2" In order to compare the fracture of zirconium with that of other metals which show unstable crack propagation, notably steel, the rate of the crack spread must be known. As the methods previously used for measuring crack growth are either unsuitable for the present work5-'' or very costly," a simple technique has been devised in which the maximum crack velocity is derived from a series of crack position-time measurements. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE The experimental arrangement is shown schematically in Fig. 1. The flash unit12 was triggered when the Charpy hammer touched the specimen and the 6-psec flash of the lamp delayed by a preselected time interval in the range 100psec to 10 msec. The camera was left on open shutter during the test. From direct measurement on a calibrated photographic print, Fig. 2, the position of the crack and the specimen was found at a known time after impact and, from a series of such tests using an appropriate range of flash-delay times, the crack velocity was estimated. Preliminary experiments were carried out on mild steel above and below its transition temperature. Vacuum-annealed zirconium, and zirconium hydrided to 100 ppm H were then tested at 20" and 150°C. For comparison, Zr-2.6 pct Nb alloy (in the 0 + transformed /3 condition), vacuum-annealed or hydrided to 100 ppm H, was tested at 20 C. The chemical analyses of these materials are given in Table I. For the high-temperature tests a fine chromel-alumel thermocouple was spot-welded onto each specimen close to the notch. The test piece was heated up to 200°C to allow enough time for preparing the apparatus while the specimen cooled to the testing tem- perature. It was assumed that the specimen cooled uniformly. The accuracy of the flash-delay time was better than i2 pct i 5 psec. The crack length was taken as its maximum distance traveled normal to the length axis of the specimen. Errors in these measurements arise as a result of the uncertainty in the location of the crack tip and the difficulty in defining the exact position of the crack starting point. The latter was due to the bonding and large amounts of deformation at the hammer contact point, especially in the vacuum-annealed specimens tested at 150°C. The maximum error in the measurements was however estimated to be about 5 pct. DISCUSSION OF RESULTS From the trial experiments using mild steel above its transition temperature it can be seen from the plot of crack length against time after impact, Fig. 3. that a reasonable estimate of the maximum crack velocity at the surface of the specimen may be made. Other features of note are the initiation time before the crack is first seen and the slowing down period

Jan 1, 1967

By AIME AIME

THE American Engineering Council, which is the working body of The Federated American Engineering Societies, held its first meeting in Washington, Nov. 18 and 19, 1920. The Federated American Engineering Societies was formed in Washington in June and is composed of engineering and technical societies, national, state, local and regional. These Member Societies elect delegates to the American Engineering Council, which is the administrative body of the Federated. The meeting was called to order by Richard L. Humphrey, Chairman of the Joint Conference Com¬mittee, and the program (which is printed below) was carried out without substantial change by E. S. Carman, who was elected temporary chairman. Under the Constitution, the Council appoints an Executive Board, the members of which are chosen according to the proportional membership of the vari¬ous Member Societies in their respective districts. Under this plan, with the present membership, 'the national societies will have 14 members and the local societies 6 members on the Executive Board.

Jan 1, 1920

By W. C. Lacy

This article is a progress report of a program designed to quantitatively evaluate geological parameters to predict stable slope angles. The author feels that, although there does not appear to be any one technique or characteristics that will suffice as an index to the determination of stable slope angles, a combination of seismic methods as outlined here, detailed geological mapping and logging of core, and a better understanding of the angle of internal friction in rock types will permit accurate estimation. A mining engineer friend once remarked, "If we don't have pit slope failures, the slopes are too flat." Since economic justification of an open pit project is based upon ultimate pit slopes, we cannot wait until the pit is developed and slopes established by trial and error. Some combination of geological and/or geophysical techniques must be developed to permit accurate prediction of stable slope angles and to suggest modification of pit outlines to result in slopes enabling maximum economic yield. This presentation is a progress report of a program designed to quantitatively evaluate geological parameters to predict stable slope angles. The principle of the weakest link applies to any slope stability evaluation and necessitates detailed geological examination and recording of observations. Physical failure will occur along any surface where shearing stress exceeds shearing resistance. Rock conditions are seldom uniform even within a single cut or pit face, so stability conditions will vary. Consequently, both plan outline and ultimate slope limits must be tailored to the specific situation. Economic advantages to be gained by slight increases in slope angles in deep pits are well recognized and stimulate efforts to obtain maximum permissible slope angles. MECHANICS OF SLOPE FAILURE Excellent reviews on the nature of slope failure have been presented+2,6,8,11 For the purpose of this study, the writer considers failure to take place by one or more of three processes: 1) ravelling, 2) translation or slope failure, and 3) rotation or base failure (Fig. 1). The effects of increased pore water pressure in soils were recognized in 1923 by Terzaghi in his development of the concept of effective stress, and he has applied the same principle to jointed rocks designating water pressure as cleft-water pressure.8 Cleft-water pressure in a rock slope reduces normal pressure on the plane of failure, thus reducing shearing resistance and resulting in slope failure. In the following discussion it is assumed that adequate drainage is supplied to prevent any build-up of water pressure. This is the first step in any program to establish maximum slopes. Ravelling: Ravelling occurs in rocks with low cohesion and entails the free movement of individual fragments ranging from single rock falls to running ground. Removal of lateral support wherever slope angle exceeds the angle of repose of the rock parti-

Jan 1, 1963

Adolph Greiner, Seraing, Belgium:—I have nothing special to add to Professor Hubert's paper except to say that there are some little things that it would be well to have corrected when the paper comes to be published. In dealing with the thermal efficiency of the engine, you will find that the 29.84 per cent. was a very high one. Professor Hubert has forgotten those engines built under the Cockerill type, but he has referred to them in Appendix 11. At our works at Cockerill we have built 63 engines, giving 63,000 h.p., and the other companies who have received licenses have built 113 engines, making 103,000 h.p., and aggregating 176 engines and 166,000 h.p. Eight years ago I had the pleasure of giving to the Institute the results obtained up to that time. Since then a good many engines have been constructed. In 1898 I thought a blast-furnace producing 100 tons of pig iron would allow 3,000 h.p. Professor Witz and Professor Hubert show that with the same production of pig the new engines take 3,800 h.p. out of the gas. At present at Cockerill we make 700 to 800 tons of pig iron per day, and we hope to have 26,000 h.p. in a few years. At present we have only half of that in gas-engines, but we hope to have in five or six years all the gas out of these furnaces to the number of 25,000 or 26,000 h.p. Tom WEstGarth, Middlesbrough, England :—My contribution is not a paper in the ordinary sense of the word, because I am sure you will agree with me that what I have written is only supplementary to the other two papers. The notes are schedules of the larger-size gas-engines built by British engine-makers, of 500 h.p. and upwards. If you look at the schedules you will find that in England gas-engines have become quite ordinary motors for a good many purposes. It was at first thought that gas-engines were troublesome, and ill-

Jan 1, 1907

By S. A. Hovanessian

The method of characteristics which reduces the Buckley-Leverett mnlineur, partial differential equation to two first-order, linear differential equations is applied to the solution of a waterffood recovery problem for multiple lines of producing wells and one line of injection wells. The application of the method is described by a numerical example, and a brief theoretical background is given. From the results of this study, it is concluded that the cumulative water injected and oil produced are the same for single and multiple sets of producing wells. INTRODUCTION In this paper, the method of characteristics is applied to the solution of a waterflood recovery problem with multiple lines of producing wells and one line of injection wells. The application of the method to this type of recovery problem considerably simplifies the procedure of obtaining a numerical solution. It differs from the method described by Kern1 because it eliminates the need for integration in obtaining saturation fronts. In addition, the saturation history at any location within the field is obtained from a single diagram (time vs distance with saturation as a parameter)'. The paper includes a brief theory of the method of characteristics and its application to the solution of oil recovery problems. A numerical example is worked out, and the cumulative oil recovery-vs-time curve for a system with multiple sets of producing wells is obtained. This curve is then compared with the recovery curve of a system with only one set of producing wells. From this study, it is concluded that the cumulative water injected and oil produced are the same for single and multiple lines of producing wells. However, the recovery time is considerably longer for multiple sets of producing wells.

By L. F. Reinartz

ANOTHER year has rolled by. We are twelve months further away from the start of the depression and. therefore that much nearer to recovery. The accumulated needs and wants 'of our lame, virile population are ready to burst their bonds as soon as confidence returns and credit is stabilized. The steel industry has been harassed by uncertainty of the Government's attitude toward organized labor's de¬mands, and irregularity in volume of production. Steel labor, if left to its own devices, would in most instances, march shoulder to shoulder with the management of steel plants in their effort to pull the industry nut of the ?red.? Cooperation between management and men has improved considerably during; the year.

Jan 1, 1935