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By Alla D. Mah

THERMODYNAMIC data for manganese and its inorganic compounds have not been critically surveyed since the work of Maier (31) 3 in 1934. At that time data were lacking or inadequate for many of the important metallurgical compounds. Experimental work, conducted during the intervening years, has supplied so many new thermodynamic values that it is again desirable to examine the available data and compile them into a single publication for handy reference. This paper consists of three main sections. The first summarizes the basic metallurgical thermodynamic data for manganese and its compounds, including heat capacities, entropies, heat contents, temperatures and heats of phase changes, vapor pressures, and heats and free energies of formation. All data available to May 1959 have been considered. The second section contains heats, free energies, equilibrium pressures, and equilibrium constants of reactions of manganese compounds, with special emphasis on metallurgical reactions. The third section supplies basic thermodynamic data for other elements and compounds encountered in metallurgical reactions of manganese, thus making it possible for the reader to conduct thermodynamic calculations without recourse to other literature.

Jan 1, 1960

By W. M. Nabors

As part of a program to promote conservation and efficient utilization of petroleum resources, Bureau of Mines engineers at the Morgantown (W. Va.) Petroleum Research Laboratory are studying secondary oil-recovery projects in the Appalachian region. The increasing demand for petroleum and its products and the increasing cost of exploratory drilling tend to emphasize the importance of improving the recovery of oil from known petroleum reserves. Published reports setting forth the pertinent facts of these operations may help others to profit by the experience. This report presents the results of a study of secondary-recovery methods used in West Virginia by the Piedmont Oil and Gas Co., the Ryan Oil Co., and Water floods , Inc., on their Roane County leases in the Walton and Clover Rush Run pools. The principal oil-producing horizon underlying the area studied is the Big Injun sand, at approximately 2,000 feet. The sand is often referred to as blanket sand because it underlies much of the State and is oil-productive in many localities. Most of the pools in the area were discovered during 1907 to 1910 and were similarly developed and operated.

Jan 1, 1960

By V. A. Nieberlein

This paper presents the results of research undertaken to recover titanium and columbium by low-temperature chlorination of low-grade columbium-bearing ilmenite concentrates, and to simultaneously remove chlorinated impurities from the volatile chlorides without resort to distillation. Coke-reduced ilmenite was chlorinated at 400° to 500° C., and the resulting TiC14 was free of most impurities before condensation. A heated purification column was used wherein various packing materials reacted chemically or physically with the impurities which passed through them in the vapor phase. A nearly water-white TiC14 product was obtained directly. The principal impurities in the titanium tetrachloride were: 0.02 percent Fe, 0.01 percent V, 0.05 percent A1, 0.04 percent Si, and 0.07 percent Cb. This is a less pure product than commercial TiC14. Most of the columbium was recovered as crude CbC15, requiring further refining.

Jan 1, 1960

By D. Bienstock

Using a nitrided fused-iron catalyst, the Bureau of Mines investigated the Fischer-Tropsch reaction in the oil-circulation process. The nitrided iron was quite stable and permitted the longest run obtained thus far in the oil-circulation process without the need for reactivating the catalyst--3,700 hours of operation. The effects of several operating variables--temperature, pressure, gas-recycle ratio, space velocity, synthesis-gas composition, and synthesis with and without reflux of oil to the reactor--on the production of oxygenates were studied. The importance of removing reflux oil and of high gas recycle in increasing the oxygenate content was shown. A finished gasoline containing 28 percent by weight alcohols was produced. The research octane number (RON) was 92.9 clear, increasing to 98.5 with the addition of one milliliter of tetraethyl lead (TEL). INTRODUCTION The Federal Bureau of Mines has been engaged since 1944 in a research and development program on the synthesis of gasoline from coal. Gasification of coal with steam and oxygen to yield a "synthesis gas"--a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen--is being investigated at Morgantown, W. Va., and the synthesis of gasoline by catalytically reacting carbon monoxide and hydrogen over iron by the Fischer-Tropsch reaction is being investigated at Bruceton, Pa.

Jan 1, 1960

By Jack D. Ramsdell

The objective of this investigation was to make a preliminary evaluation of titanium-vanadium-zirconium, alloys using room-temperature tensile properties as criteria for selecting promising alloys for future critical studies. Arc-melted titanium-vanadium-zirconium alloys ranging in composition from 5 to 20 a/o (atomic-percent) vanadium and 5 to 30 a/o zirconium, were investigated to evaluate hardness, hot workability, and room-temperature tensile properties. Metallographic examination coupled with hardness measurements were used to follow structural changes and aging response. Room-temperature tensile properties were criteria for evaluating mechanical and engineering properties of the alloys.

Jan 1, 1960

By Marvin W. Wilson

The Federal Bureau of Mines has conducted laboratory experiments simulating underground gasification of coal to study the feasibility and mechanism of the process and determine the chemical and physical characteristics of a coal-bed during gasification. Laboratory and small-scale field experiments also were made to investigate the properties of coal and other factors affecting the electrolinking-carbonization method of preparing a path through a coalbed before gasification. Laboratory experiments simulating underground gasification of coal: Experiments with a laboratory retort indicated that bituminous-coal deposits could be gasified in place to produce a combustible gas.

Jan 1, 1960

By C. J. Walker

The ever-increasing use off natural underground formations for storing natural gas has focused attention on the behavior of such storage formations under varying operating conditions. The need for a means of evaluating in¬dividual wells and groups of wells has become manifest. It is essential that industry and others be able to determine the rates of flow that can be ex¬pected from a given well or group of wells under different conditions and to ascertain whether certain wells are deteriorating. Such questions need more exact answers now than ever before because of the vital role underground gas storage plays in the industrial and domestic consumption of natural gas. The Bureau of Mines--in cooperation with the American Gas Association--has main¬tained an active interest in gas-well testing because of the implications of such test procedures on the consumption and efficient production of natural gas. A basis for testing gas wells was provided by the back-pressure method of Rawlins and Schellhardt (12).4/ They showed that for normal gas wells there is a consistent relationship between rates of delivery of gas and corresponding pressures when the formation pressures are used as the basis of interpretation, The equation for this relationship is as follows: Q = C (Pf2 - Ps2)n where; Q = rate of flow, generally expressed in cubic feet per 24 hours. C = a coefficient.

Jan 1, 1960

By R. F. Tenney

The performances of four anthracite-burning stokers have been observed under identical 74-hp. steam boilers. Fifty runs of 12 and 24 hours' duration were made in accordance with the test code of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME). The capacity of each stoker for burning anthracite has been determined, the heat efficiency at each fuel rate has been computed, and the various significant items of hear loss have been estimated. The operating data and results from each run are tabulated in this report in the form used in the test code. The heat efficiencies and most significant operating data for each run are also presented graphically for each stoker to establish the trends with increasing boiler outputs, The tests show that rice anthracite can be burned on stokers adapted to its use at heat-conversion efficiencies of 82 percent or more under continuous firing. These high efficiencies are maintained with fuel inputs 30 percent higher and lower than the peak efficiency rate. Moreover, a heat efficiency of 70 percent or more is obtained at 50 percent of the optimum fuel rate, even though the excess air into the furnace cannot be held below 150 percent.

Jan 1, 1960

By R. V. Higgins

In a recent report3/ the authors presented a rapid method of calculating, by means of a desk calculator, the future performance of oil reservoirs in which the motivating agent was gas. The accuracy of the method was tested by data obtained from an electronic computer. Because of the accuracy obtained for the limited number of calculations performed, considerable interest has been expressed in the electronic computer program used to obtain the comparative data by an analytical solution. Accordingly, the computer procedures for the analytical solution are presented in this report. In an earlier report, 4/ a reservoir appraisal procedure was published in which an iterative method was used. Many requests were received for the computer program used to obtain the values given in that paper. That program, with some modifications, also is presented in this report. The modifications are given because of the progress that his been made in computers, and because much of the program for the analytical solution is usable for the iterative procedure.

Jan 1, 1960

By T. E. Gray

This report describes the preparation characteristics of the more significant coalbeds in Butler County, Pa. It is one of a series planned to determine which coals are suitable for producing metallurgical coke, either as mined or after beneficiation. More than 2 million tons of coal was produced in Butler County in 1958, of which about 25 percent was cleaned mechanically in four cleaning plants. Updating the 1942 coal-reserve estimates made by Ashley to December 31, 1958, more than 1,266 million tons of recoverable coal reserves remain in the county in beds that arc 24 inches or more thick. The Upper and Lower Freeport, Upper, Middle, and Lower Kittanning, Clarion, and Brookville beds were selected on the basis of production and estimated minable reserves. Sample locations were chosen after a study of the literature, conferences with mining engineers and mining company officials in the field, and examination of the available sites. Four samples each were collected from the Upper Freeport and Middle Kittanning beds, three samples from the Brookville bed, two, samples from the Upper Kittanning bed, and one sample each from the Lower Freeport, Lower Kittanning, and Clarion beds.

Jan 1, 1960

By Walter W. Fowkes

Leonardite is a coallike substance, similar in structure and composition to lignitic coal and believed to be derived from lignitic coal by the process of natural oxidation. Leonardite is little known outside lignite-producing areas and has been developed commercially only to a minor extent. The higher oxygen content and less compact structure of leonardite, compared with lignite, make it undesirable as a fuel but indicate that it has potential as a source of chemicals and for other nonfuel uses. It is a convenient source of humic acids. The United States has a large natural reserve of leonardite; furthermore, it can be produced in the laboratory under controlled conditions. The significant elemental difference between leonardite and lignite is the oxygen content (leonardite, 28-29 percent; lignite, 19-20 percent). The higher oxygen content of leonardite is due entirely to a Larger number of carboxylic acid groups. This fact explains the 17-Cold increase in alkali solubility of leonardite. Spectral studies indicate that the material is mixed salts of humic acids.

Jan 1, 1960

By D. D. Walker

Scheelite, the most abundant tungsten mineral in the Philipsburg region of Montana, is found in replacement deposits and along fissures and cracks in limestone at various distances from contacts with acidic igneous rocks. It also occurs at the limestone-igneous contacts, but typical garnet tactites are developed in only a few places in the region. The most favorable host rocks for scheelite mineralization are the Jefferson, Hasmark, and Madison limestones. Scheelite is exposed in float, outcrops, and surface and mine workings along a 2-mile-wide belt extending southwest from Lost Creek beyond Silver Lake, a distance of 15 miles or more. (See fig. 1.) Some scheelite is found in veins formerly mined for silver. Powellite and molybdenite occasionally are present with the scheelite. Hubnerite occurs in quartz veins in the Black Pine area 10 miles northwest of Philipsburg. These quartz veins occur in the quartzites of the Precambrian Spokane formation. Tungsten production in the region has come almost exclusively from scheelite deposits, both lode and placer. During a 6-year period beginning in 1943 a total of 142.0 tons of 63-percent W03 concentrate was produced by H & H Mines Co. In the early 1950's, the Trigger mine produced 4,000 tons of 1-percent W03 ore and the Tip Top 650 tons of 2.0-percent W03 ore and 2,906 tons of 2.2-percent ore. There has been sporadic production from some of the smaller properties in the area.

Jan 1, 1960

By John Nagy

A study was made in the Bureau of Mines experimental coal mine of factors affecting gas ignition by a cutoff explosive charge. Experiments showed that, although gas could be ignited under some circumstances, the probability under normal mining conditions would be low. The use of permissible explosives, relatively short-delay intervals in firing adjacent holes, blasting to a 6-inch kerf, and reasonable care in the placement of the holes favor safe blasting and are current practice in mining. The experiments also showed that the weight of the charge is not a primary factor in the ignition of gas by a cutoff charge. The quenching action of a first charge on the igniting action of a second was verified in a supplementary study. Related experiments have shown that gas at the face may be ignited by a single charge of explosive when fired with a light coal burden. Permissible explosives were less hazardous under these conditions than nonpermissible explosives. The frequency of gas ignition in cutoff and single-charge experiments increased as the linear distance between the sheared face and the opposing mine rib increased.

Jan 1, 1960

By John C. Holtz

"The Federal Bureau of Mines serves the mining industry by approving equipment that is designed to prevent explosion, fire, shock, or toxic hazards in mines when such equipment is used and maintained in a proper manner, through research, consultation, testing, and inspection, the Bureau studies machinery and component parts submitted by manufacturers and others. Before receiving the Bureau's approval as permissible for safe use in mines, equipment must pass exacting tests and must meet strict requirements established through research and experience and listed in the Bureau's various permissibility schedules. An important phase of the Bureau's research is the testing of diesel engines.Mobile diesel-powered equipment can be used safely in underground noncoal mines and tunnels when mechanical ventilation is provided to dilute and remove the exhaust gas and to replenish oxygen in the underground atmosphere. Safe ventilation is determined by suitable tests of each engine used in a diesel machine. This ventilation cannot be predicted safely, accurately, and economically from any general empirical relationship.In determining safe ventilation, the quantities of carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, and oxides of nitrogen generated by a diesel engine must be ascertained. These quantities are related to the displacement of the engine, its speed of operation, the design of the combustion chamber, and the fuel:air ratio needed to produce useful power. At overrich fuel:air ratios, all diesel engines generate excessive quantities of toxic carbon monoxide and smoke. The results of engine tests are used to determine a maximum fuel-injection rate at or below which carbon monoxide can be controlled by a reasonable ventilation and smoke is essentially eliminated. Toxic oxides of nitrogen are related to fuel:air ratio and the design of the combustion chamber. Their concentration in the exhaust cannot be controlled by engine adjustments, and each engine appears to have individual characteristics concerning formation of these oxides. Production of oxides of nitrogen frequently is the most important factor in determining safe ventilation."

Oct 1, 1959

By G. E. McElroy

This report discusses the construction and use of an all-pressure psy- chrometric chart in which the requirements of simplicity of appearance and absolute accuracy have been waived, to a certain extent, to provide for the rapid determination of psychrometric data and for the rapid solution of air- conditioning problems of major interest to the mining industry. Many mines in which air-conditioning problems are important are situated at elevations far above sea level and embrace great differences in elevation - in excess of 8,000 feet in certain mines → throughout their airflow circuits. Under these conditions, the effects of variations in the pressure of the at- mosphere upon the physical properties of the mixture of air and water vapor of which it is composed are considerable and should be taken into account in the solution of problems. The simple types of psychrometric charts in common use, such as the Carrier, Bulkeley, Hill, and Goff (American Society of Heat- ing and Ventilating Engineers Guide), are not generally suitable, in that they are drawn for a single barometric pressure 29,92 inches mercury.

Dec 1, 1947

By Michael Sokaski, M. R. Geer, H. F. Yancey

This report is one of a series describing investigations by the Federal Bureau of Mines of the performance of various types of coal - cleaning equipment ; other reports in the series are listed in the bibliography . The information in these reports is useful to the coal industry and the manufacturers of coal - cleaning equipment in several ways : First , it assists the coalpreparation engineer who is planning a new plant to select the type of process best suited to the requirements by enabling him to forecast the yield and quality of clean coal obtainable with each type of equipment . Second , the information serves as a yardstick by which the performance of a plant can be judged and thus helps determine whether it is operating at satisfactory efficiency . Both these functions promote better coal - preparation practice ; that is , they help provide coal of more suitable quality for the market and likewise minimize the waste of good coal . This serves the interest of conservation with which the Bureau is vitally concerned . The present report deals with three plants using the Tromp dense - medium process , named after its inventor , K. F. Tromp , who developed the process in the Netherlands in 1936.5/ Selection of this particular dense -medium process for investigation was entirely a matter of convenience , and reports dealing with other dense -medium systems are planned for the future . Two baths are employed in one of the plants investigated . The first of these , handling 6- to 3 - inch coal , exhibited an exceptionally sharp separation between coal and impurity . This was characterized by an error area of 12 and a probable error of 0.023 . In the second bath , treating refuse from the

Jul 1, 1960

By E. J. Ostrowski, P. L. Woolf, J. P. Morris, Norwood B. Melcher

By injecting natural gas through auxiliary tuyeres into the smelting zone of the Bureau of Mines ' experimental blast furnace in January 1959 , the investigators succeeded in reducing the coke consumption by approximately one - third that of the base period . This caused a 30 - percent increase in pig iron production with no increase in wind rate . The maximum gas addition in these experiments was 4,665 cubic feet per ton of metal produced . Sharp reduction in gas consumption occurred when high hot blast and high wind rates were used , although the gas injection rate in percent of air blown remained constant . As the heat energy produced by burning natural gas to carbon monoxide and hydrogen is much less than burning coke to carbon monoxide , greater blast temperatures were required during the test runs . The gases produced from the methane were , however , more effective reductants ; so it was possible to increase the production rate while reducing the total heat requirements per ton of metal produced . During a base period with an all - sinter burden , before introduction of natural gas , a coke rate of 1,484 pounds per net ton of pig iron was attained , using an average blast temperature of 1,518 ° F. Gas was introduced gradually over a two -week period until an average 7 percent of the air blown was reached . During this period , the wind rate was adjusted downward to maintain a constant flow of gas in the bosh . The production rate of the furnace remained relatively constant . The quality of pig iron, however , improved as the sulfur load on the furnace was reduced as a result of the substitution of gas for coke . Blast temperatures were increased during this period from 1,518 ° F. to 1,939 ° F. , when the maximum gas addition was reached .

Jul 1, 1960

By J. S. Tosh

The Federal Bureau of Mines has investigated the equilibrium of the system potassium carbonate (K2C03) potassium bicarbonate (KHCO3) potassium bisulfide (KHS) carbon dioxide (C02) hydrogen sulfide (H2S) water (H20). Partial pressures of hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide, and water vapor were measured at 70° to 130° C. over solutions of 20-, 30-, and 40-percent-equivalent potassium carbonate containing from 20 to 3,000 grains of equivalent hydrogen sulfide per gallon of solution. This study was made to obtain equilibrium data for evaluating the feasibility of using solutions of hot potassium carbonate for removing, hydrogen sulfide from gas mixtures. The equilibrium partial pressure of hydrogen sulfide may be correlated with the ratio of the molal concentrations of the solutes (KHC03) (KHS)/ (K2CO3). The relationship is shown graphically for the 30- and 40-percent solutions. Once this ratio is determined, the partial pressure of hydrogen sulfide can be obtained from the curves. The equilibrium data show that effective removal of both carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide can be achieved simultaneously with hot solutions of potassium carbonate.

Jan 1, 1960

By I. L. Feld

This Bureau of Mines report describes the development of a simple method of producing low-phosphorus hematite concentrates from certain submarginal southeastern iron ores. The investigation was undertaken to obtain additional information on the Clinton iron ore outcrops at the southwestern extremity of the Birmingham district of Alabama and to assist in the development of operating techniques that would make it profitable to use the marginal ores of this area for blast-furnace feed. Batch and continuous pilot-plant tests demonstrated that a relatively simple wet scrubbing treatment) followed by a desliming operation to reject argillaceous (clayey) gangue, consistently yielded a marketable granular hematite product. Iron losses were relatively high but could be tolerated in view of the low treatment cost.

Jan 1, 1960

By Henry G. Dorsett

This report is a description of equipment and test procedures used by the Federal Bureau of Mines in laboratory studies on the explosibility of dusts. The principal tests concern ignition temperature, minimum explosive concentra¬tion, minimum electrical energy for ignition, limiting oxygen concentration, pressure, and rates of pressure rise. As new materials often present unique problems, variations in the general procedure and special tests performed are indicated, The general procedures for handling a dust sample from its receipt at the laboratory to the preparation of the report are described. The repro¬ducibility of the respective tests are shown. A brief history of laboratory studies on dust explosions by the Bureau of Mines and a description of current equipment and test procedures used are presented in this report. Its purpose is to facilitate interpretation of data previously published and those proposed to be published on the numerous mineral, agricultural and industrial dusts that have been studied. Through understanding and interpretation of the laboratory data obtained for the parameters of explosibility, preventive measures can be adopted for alleviat¬ing the hazard of dust explosions arising in manufacturing and processing industries.

Jan 1, 1960