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By Douglas G. Fox

Outputs from industrial activities planned in the Riley Ridge natural gas project are modeled to determine the potential locations of air pollution impacts on the Bridger and Fitzpatrick Wildernesses in Wyoming. The nature of modeling, especially with regard to its realism, is discussed. Alpine lakes which, along with their watersheds, have minimal buffering capacity are being studied because of their sensitivity to acidic deposition from proposed new air pollution sources. A hypothesis which relates a source's emissions to deposition and lake chemistry in a worst-case sense is presented. Research designed to test the hypothesis and reduce uncertainties is outlined and progress reviewed. Focus is placed on the meteorological transport and atmospheric deposition parameterization contained in the hypothesis.

Jan 1, 1984

By Charles A. Sorrell

Two red muds, two fly ashes, and several aluminosilicate minerals were subjected to direct treatment with concentrated H2SO4 at temperatures of 175°C and below. X-ray analysis showed that virtually all the sulfate reaction products remained in the solid residue because of their low solubilities in x SO Substantial portions of the Al2O3 Fe2O3TiO2, Na2O, and K2O components of the materials reacted to form water soluble sulfates, which were then removed by H2O leaching at 55°C. The solid residue after water leaching consisted largely of amorphous silica and, in lime bearing compounds, CaSO4, The reaction and leaching processes were effective in removing all or nearly all the Al2O3. Fe2O3, TiO2, Na2O, and in lime components in the fly ashes, red muds, china clay, bentonites, the nephelioe fraction of nepheline syenite, and a plaster insulating brick composed of anorthite and mullite. Reaction with potassium feldspar and petalite took place, with formation of alkali aluminum sulfates, but the reaction rates and yields were extremely low. Potassium feldspar can be heated with Na2O and x O in air at 700°C for 24 hours, or with CaO at 1000°C for 24 hours, after which the reaction product kaliophilite, nepheline, and leucite-like phases, prove to be very susceptible to H2SO4, reaction and H2O leaching, providing yields near 100% of the Al2O2 content. An alternative method of H SO treatment consists of heating the sample in a silica tube and passing H2SO4 vapor over it. Preliminary results indicate that this method can be effective in enhancing the kinetics of reaction with the Al O component of potassium feldspar and offer the possibility that formation of Al2 (SO ) Fe2(SO4)3 and TiOSO4 can be accomplished selectively by taking advantage of the fact that the upper stability limits of the respective sulfates in the presence of H2SO4 vapor will be different.

Jan 1, 1982

By A H. Clemens, P Lindsay

Acid producing potential static tests have been undertaken on sample lithologies from New Zealand coal mines, to rank the lithogies into acid producing waste rock and stable non-acid producing waste rock. Results indicated that the main acid producing waste rock in the Waikato coal region are the marine Whaingaroa siltstone and the Glen Massey formations and the main alkaline producing lithologies were the Tauranga group volcanic-derived sediments (A & D) and the Mesozoic basement. Coal ash analysis of 28 samples from 28 mines have also been analysed for reactive S percentage and their base potential has been quantified by the chemical index of alteration (CIA). The results provide mine management in the Waikato Coal region with a classification of problematic and stable waste rock types. XRF and CIA values determined from wash drill cuttings would provide a method of determining waste rock volumes and magnitude of palaeo-weathering underground.

Jan 1, 1999

Mineralogical analysis of a nickeliferous laterite from the Rockhampton region shows that the nickel is largely associated with the manganese wad and opaline silica. The laterite also contains an appreciable chromite content (about 12 per cent Cr2O,) although this tends to be poorly liberated.Leaching with hydrochloric or sulphuric acid, at atmospheric pressure at the boiling point is non-selective with respect to iron dissolution.The degree of dissolution increases as the acid concentration and retention time are increased; cobalt dissolution requires less aggressive conditions than does the dissolution of an equivalent amount of nickel.Leaching with sulphuric acid at elevated temperatures and pressures leads to a minimum amount of iron dissolution, is rapid, and requires a reduced acid addition rate. Nickel and cobalt recovery from the clarified leachate would be simplified because of the leach selectivity.Pressure leaching appears to be the most practical route for treating the Rockhampton laterite. The economics of processing would be made more attractive by the recovery of a chromium concentrate from the leach residue. This would typically contain about 45 per cent Cr2O, and could be used as a source of chromium chemicals.

Jan 1, 1986

By T. Sharma, T. C. Rao

Laboratory studies have been carried out on acid leaching as a possible route for the extraction of potassium from glauconitic sandstone. Leaching efficiencies with sulphuric, hydrochloric and nitric acids were investigated. The effects on potassium dissolution of temperature, concentration and type of acid, stirring speed and leaching time were also studied. The results show that it is possible to recover 87.5, 93 and 85% potassium with 5 M H2SO4, HCl and HNO3, respectively. During the initial stages of the sulphuric acid leaching process the chemical reaction at the mineral surface is the rate determining step, whereas during the later stages diffusion through the product layer is rate-controlling. Overall, the process follows a mixed-control model that includes both chemical reaction and diffusion. The activation energy for the dissolution of K was found to be in the range 25.79-106 kJ/mol.

Jan 12, 1992

By F. Enslin

Heavy metals and sulphates in acid mine drainage (AMD) can beadsorbed onto bentonite clay, leaving clean water and a heavy metal loaded clay precipitate as products. Due to the toxicity of heavy metals, the clay could not be disposed of safely in the past. A method was thus required to remove the heavy metal content from the clay. Acid leaching was proposed to liberate the heavy metals from the loaded clay. Sulphuric, nitric and hydrochloric acid were considered as lixiviants. Loaded clay samples were leached over a range of pH values from 1 to 3.5 to identify an optimum leaching condition. From the results it was found that metals can berecovered from loaded bentonite clay by means of acid leaching and the optimum pH for heavy metal liberation was found to be 2.5, with uranium as an exception, being optimally leached at a pH of 3. This allows for the possibility of selective leaching. Furthermore, X-ray diffraction analyses indicated that the clay structure did not deteriorate significantly during acid leaching, suggesting that the bentonite could be reused. The treatment of AMD with bentonite clay, and subsequent acid leaching of the clay, is a sustainable solution, and current outcomes could possibly lead to industrial implementation of the process during water purifying and metal recovery from waste streams. Keywords: Acid mine drainage, bentonite, heavy metals.

Jan 1, 2010

By Shiou-Chuan Sun

This paper is to be presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical and Petroleum Engineers, New York, New York, February 18-22, 1962. Permission is hereby given to publish with appropriate acknowledgments, excerpts or summaries not to exceed one-fourth of the entire text of the paper. Permission to print in more extended form subsequent to publication by the Institute must be obtained from the Secretary of the Institute. If and when this paper is published by the Institute, it may embody certain changes made by agreement between the Technical Publications Committee and the author, so that the form in which it appears here is not necessarily that in which it may be published later.

Jan 1, 1962

By N. Kuyucak

"Acid mine drainage (AMD) is one of the most significant environmental challenges facing the mining industry worldwide. It occurs as a result of natural oxidation of sulphide minerals contained in mining wastes at operating and closed/decommissioned mine sites. AMD may adversely impact the surface water and groundwater quality and land use due to its typical low pH, high acidity and elevated concentrations of metals and sulphate content. Once it develops at a mine, its control can be difficult and expensive. If generation of AMD cannot be prevented, it must be collected and treated. Treatment of AMD usually costs more than control of AMD and may be required for many years after mining activities have ceased. Therefore, application of appropriate control methods to the site at the early stage of the mining would be beneficial.Although prevention of AMD is the most desirable option, a cost-effective prevention method is not yet available. The most effective method of control is to minimize penetration of air and water through the waste pile using a cover, either wet (water) or dry (soil), which is placed over the waste pile. Despite their high cost, these covers cannot always completely stop the oxidation process and generation of AMD. Application of more than one option might be required.Early diagnosis of the problem, identification of appropriate prevention/control measures and implementation of these methods to the site would reduce the potential risk of AMD generation. AMD prevention/control measures broadly include use of covers, control of the source, migration of AMD, and treatment. This paper provides an overview of AMD prevention and control options applicable for developing, operating and decommissioned mines."

Jan 1, 2002

By Q. Xiao, R. Naidu, W. Li, S. Song

Acid mine drainage (AMD) derives from the oxidation of sulfide minerals, primarily pyrite (FeS2), and is the most severe environmental issue facing the minerals industry. The most common short-term approach to AMD treatment is migration control, such as acid neutralization and metal/metalloid and sulfate removal, through the addition of alkaline materials, including lime (Ca (OH)2), limestone (Ca CO3), gangue minerals and industrial wastes. This requires the continuous input of materials and may result in the production of a vast amount of secondary sludge requiring further treatment and disposal. Addition of chemicals is usually more important in metal/metalloid removal than in sulfate removal unless the sulfate is present in very high concentrations. A more promising long-term strategy for AMD prevention is source control through the complete removal of pyritic minerals and encapsulation of potential risk minerals by coating with impermeable surface layers. This is regarded as the most cost-effective approach, although the mechanisms underpinning this and the implementation procedures are yet to be fully elucidated. It is likely that long- and short-term practices can be combined to optimize the remediation of contaminated mining sites. Some factors such as differing geological and mineralogical characteristics and transportation costs must also be considered for the successful implementation of AMD prevention and remediation strategies. This review also considers some implications for AMD remediation, but the promising bioremediation of AMD is not discussed as it has been extensively reviewed.

By E. A. Zawadzki

The problem of pollution of water by mine drainage is at least as old as the mining industry itself. However, research on the formation, composition, treatment, and abatement of mine water is a relatively recent historical event. At Bituminous Coal Research, Inc., acid mine drainage control has been an important area of work since 1944, at which time BCR began sponsorship of research at West Virginia University. The work at West Virginia University involved a detailed study of the acid mine drainage problem and led to the identification of iron oxidizing bacteria as important factors in the formation of acid mine water. The results of this research were summarized in 1954 by Temple and Koehler (1) who concluded that "no practical solution for the problem" of controlling acid mine drainage is yet known.?

Jan 1, 1967

By M Watts, P Lindsay

Herbert Stream, a tributary of the Waimangaroa River on the Stockton Plateau, has elevated metal concentrations and low pH characteristic of acid mine drainage (AMD). Dissolved aluminium concentrations average 8.3 ppm, iron 1.4 ppm, manganese 0.69 ppm, and zinc 0.12 ppm and pH ranges from 2.8 to 3.2. Flow rates range from 2.3 to 26.6 L/s with an average of 5.3 L/s. To determine the effectiveness of different treatment strategies, a small amount of the AMD was diverted through three small-scale passive AMD remediation systems over an eight month period. These included a reducing and alkalinity producing system (RAPS), a limestone leaching bed (LLB), and an open limestone channel (OLC). Both the RAPS and the LLB performed well, effectively removing metals and restoring pH. The RAPS lowered aluminium concentrations by up to 99%, iron 97%, manganese 95%, and zinc 80% and the LLB lowered aluminium concentrations by up to 99%, iron 99%, manganese 92%, and zinc 91%. The pH was restored to between 6.4 and 7.4 by the RAPS and to between 7.3 and 7.9 by the LLB. The OLC performed well as long as the residence time was similar to that of the other treatment systems. OLC removal rates for aluminium was up to 99%, iron 94%, and manganese 21%, and the pH was restored up to 5.6. Due to its simplicity and effectiveness, it is proposed the LLB be constructed to fullscale size to treat the entire Herbert Stream.

Jan 1, 2007

By Richard F. Hammen

Mineral extraction from sulfide ore deposits usually leads to the combined action of oxygen and water on the newly exposed ore. The result is acid mine drainage, a low pH solution of various metal sulfate salts and sulfuric acid. Paradoxically, the valuable metals dissolved in acid mine water are a liability because they are too toxic for discharge but too dilute to recover economically. The expense of compliance with water quality release standards has reduced the profitability of many mining operations. Solid phase extraction (SPE) columns have been developed to extract metals from acid mine water. These columns are designed to remove the toxic elements from water and recover the metals as purified fractions. This article describes the results of a Phase 1 bench-scale project to test the performance of the SPE columns. The tests were conducted with water collected from the abandoned Berkeley Pit copper mine in Butte, MT.

Jan 1, 1993

By J. A. Murray

Maintaining satisfactory air quality in electro-winning tankhouses has been problematic and costly, particularly as plant operating current densities have increased. Conventional approaches, including the use of beads, hollow spheres, surfactants and coalescer devices, have not proved completely effective, requiring that powerful ventilation systems be installed. As workplace and environmental regulations become more stringent, containment of the acid mist at its source is more attractive. An electrode cap system based on this approach has been developed and tested in two commercial copper electrowinning tankhouses. The design, development, installation and cost of the new electrode cap system are described.

Jan 1, 1996

By Irshad A. Rana

In a modern copper smelter, the capital cost of a sulfuric acid plant constitutes the largest single cost item of the total investment. It is thus essential to properly size the acid plant in order to reduce its capital cost and enhance the economic viability of a new smelter project. Whereas the off-gas from a smelting furnace is continuous and generally uniform, the gas flow from the Peirce-Smith converters is intermittent with significant fluctuations. The converters off-gas volume is dependent upon a number of interrelating factors. The most significant factors are the matte feed grade, the system air infiltration, the converter's size and blowing rate, the maximum number of converters simultaneously blowing and the gas cooling system employed. The acid plant size, therefore, is heavily influenced by the converter off-gases. Several of these factors are discussed, and their impact in determining the acid plant size is explored.

Jan 1, 1993

By Walter R. Hibbard

Precipitation in the northeastern United States, Florida, California and in many industrialized areas of the world is now more acidic (lower pH) than can be accounted for by natural causes. At the same time, the acidity of many lakes and streams in the northeastern United States has been measured and found to be similar to that of actual rain. These facts have led to conclusions that the two conditions are related. Coal burning utilities, 700 to 1000 miles upwind, have been accused of being the cause, leading to proposals for strict emission controls on the alleged offenders. The costs of these controls would place an estimated $10 to $15 billion capital burden on utility customers in about 15 states plus $2 to $6 billion annual operating costs. There appears to be no direct well-established scientific evidence that the accused are guilty but that the indictment is based largely on circumstantia1 evidence. This study examines the evidence, describes the situation and proposes what must be done to reduce the acid precipitation in an orderly cost beneficial manner. It is interesting to observe that studies by the different adversaries on the acid precipitation issue come to different conclusions largely because they do not read the same literature, but selectively develop evidence to support their own points of view, This study will try to review the issues impartially and reach a position of scholarly balance.

Jan 1, 1982

The C.S.I.R.O. acid alumina process employs the essential steps of digestion, hydrolysis and calcination to produce pure alumina from ores too high in silica or too low in grade for the Bayer process. The two latter stages have been described in some detail previously but the digestion stage requires separate discussion since ores vary widely in composition and reactivity. Kaolinitic clays require roasting to 800°C to render the alumina soluble in the 11 per cent sulphuric acid used in the process while some ferruginous laterites require roasting to reduce the reactivity of iron minerals.The iron content of pregnant solutions is kept at a low figure by digesting at temperatures where the solubilities of ferric oxide or basic ferric sulphates are small. A two-stage, counter-current digestion is necessary to extract a high percentage of alumina from the ores and to produce a basic pregnant liquor with an SO3 : AI 203 ratio of 1'\1 suitable for high temperature hydrolysis. The second stage of digestion, called the modification stage, treats slightly acid liquors with excess of ore in the temperature range 1200-1400C.The first stage operates at 170°-1900C to extract further alumina from modification residues, using recycled acid obtained from later steps of the process. Both temperature ranges are critical for economic operation and for proper control of the iron content of solutions. In batch experiments, 30 min is regarded as a suitable retention time for digestion and modification; ores which require much longer than this are less suitable for the process. Impurities such as silica, and titanium and vanadium oxides are discarded in the residue along with iron oxide, and do not contaminate the final product. Bivalent metallic sulphates such as MgSO4, can build up in the circuit to a very considerable degree without affecting product purity.Comparison with other processes shows that the C.S.I.R.O. process is superior for control of contamination by iron, which is the major problem in acid processes. The pure intermediate product (3Al203.4S03.9H20) is also more convenient for calcination to alumina than the hydrated aluminium sulphate usually recovered in other processes. Detailed cost comparisons must await pilot-plant evaluation of the C.S.LR.O process.

Jan 1, 1964

By Richard S. Dennis

Acid recovery employs ion exchange (I-X) resin as separation media for inorganic acids from dissolved metallic salts by physical adsorption and without the use of chemicals. This technology has been used for years on spent etching and plating liquors to recover acid for reuse in the bath and to reduce waste acid neutralization costs. It is also used for electrolyte treatment to facilitate valuable metal recovery via acidity reduction. TETRA's ccrxr'" I-X contactor has been used successfully for acid separation from its metallic salt counterpart in a simple, continuous operating mode using strong base anion resins. Efficient separation is enhanced by acid reconcentration to nearly its original strength or as high as 14-20%. Continuous treatment also recovers heat to the tankhouse or bath and improves metal quality due to consistent acid quality. Conventional fixed bed ion exchange (I-X) systems are impractical for acid recovery because of complex control design and large resin inventories needed to process very low liquid-to-resin treatment ratios associated with strong acid concentrations.

Jan 1, 1996

By F. Baerhold, S. Mitterecker

"Acid recovery is an important process step in pickling and leaching processes. Pyrohydrolysis in spray roasters and fluidized beds is a well-established technology to recover hydrochloric acid, but the hydrolysis in the liquid phase is more and more considered as an alternative new process route. The characteristic features of these three processes will be discussed along with select industry trends. For example, hydrochloric acid based leaching processes for ilmenite and nickel laterite ores produce far larger volumes of waste acid streams than the steel industry. Scaling-up of the spray roasting technology to the highest possible capacity is necessary in order to become more cost effective. In addition, process routes based on ferric chloride pyrohydrolysis allow the production of super-azeotropic HCl (up to 30 wt.%). Finally, the new ECOmode concept optimizes the operation of both pickling lines and the spray roast acid recovery plant. Long term results from industrial applications show that fuel savings in the spray roaster of 25% are easily achieved without additional process steps. An attractive feature is also to upgrade existing installations to higher plant capacities.INTRODUCTION Pyrohydrolysis is the conversion of metal halides into metal oxides at elevated temperatures in the presence of water vapor. Reaction products are a hydrogen halide gas and a metal oxide. The process was originally developed and introduced into the market by ANDRITZ Ruthner in the 1960’s. It has found wide technical application in the field of acid recovery and oxide production. The introduction of this process has revolutionized pickling technology. The use of hydrochloric acid has strongly increased over the last decades, since pyrohydrolysis is available for the total recovery of waste pickle liquors from mild steel pickling, as illustrated in Figure 1.Chloride media are also used increasingly in the metallurgical industry. Oxide production processes for Mg, Co, Ni, and Al have been installed. Processes using hydrochloric acid are known for the leaching of ores as well as for the re-extraction of metals from organic solvents. In both cases the recycling of HCl is of substantial importance to achieve highly economic processes and to reduce waste."

Jan 1, 2016

By José A. Rios, José A. Vidalôn

The case study of a highland area in the Central Andes of Peru, where many abandoned polymetallic mines are found, is presented. Some of these mines generate metal leaching and acid rock drainage (ML/ARD) or have potentially ARD generating (PAG) tailings/waste rock storage. Effluents are discharged into the first of two lakes in line, which act as reservoirs for irrigating an important valley in the desert coastal region. Drainage fees, their relationship with the deposit and the solid-wastes mineralogy are discussed, as well as variations in water and sediments composition, the benthos, and the aquatic/riparian flora/fauna in these lakes.

Jan 1, 2000

By R Carreau

The results of a detailed acid rock drainage (ARD) prediction program were used to revise the waste rock segregation criteria at the Restigouche open pit mine. Waste rock at the site was predominately derived from altered volcanic rocks that hosted a massive sulfide lead/zinc orebody. The program assessed the five years of drainage chemistry from both the potentially acid generating and the non-acid generating waste rock storage facilities in addition to laboratory-based kinetic test results. Material-specific leaching characteristics including relative metal-release rates and neutralisation potential depletion rates were determined from 12 laboratory-based kinetic tests. Solid-phase analyses indicated that, although pyrite was typically the most abundant sulfide mineral in the waste rock, its abundance varied significantly as documented by total sulfur contents ranging from 4.0 per cent. Kinetic test results were used to establish revised waste rock segregation criteria based on total sulfur content and neutralisation potential. The revised criteria maintain that waste material with a total sulfur content 4.0 per cent as potentially acid generating. When present in sufficient quantities, ankerite provided an effective source of neutralisation potential for the range of observed sulfide oxidation rates. Kinetic testing documented that up to 6 kg CaCO3/t was ineffective at neutralising acidity in samples that contained >4 per cent S. The carbonate molar ratio measured from the humidity cells was adjusted to reflect the stoichiometry of the ankerite and applied as an NP/AP criteria for waste rock containing 0.1 <S per cent <4.0.

Jan 1, 2003