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By Dennis C. Drehmel

Because of their relatively low cost, carbonate rocks are desirable in abatement of air pollution by acid gases. Although many processes and types of equipment have been proposed to control or prevent the emission of acid gases, this paper considers only three: dry-limestone injection, wet-limestone scrubbing, and chemically active fluid beds. For the dry-limestone-injection process, surface area-especially from pores in the 0. 2- to 0.3-micron range-is one of the important parameters which will discriminate between less and more reactive carbonate rocks. Marls, chalks, oolitic calcites, and other fine- grained limestones show larger-than-average surface areas and better- than-average removal efficiencies. Inert chemical impurities such as silica detract from reactivity. A dolomite is not necessarily less re- active than a calcite. For the wet-limestone-scrubbing process, dissolution rate of the carbonate rock controls the differences in stone reactivity. In this process the dolomites are less reactive than the calcites. In addition, more than 90 percent of the dolomitic impurity in Fredonia white lime- stone is inert during limestone scrubbing. Dissolution rate is also a function of particle size for large-grained carbonate rocks. Fine grinding of such rocks will increase the dissolution rate to that of a fine-grained rock. Hence the requirement of high dissolution rates may be met by some grinding of fine-grained material (e. g., marl, chalk, or other limestone) or by fine grinding of coarser grained material. For chemically active fluid beds, chalks have the best capacity to absorb both SO2 and H2S. However, most chalks are probably unsuitable for fluid beds because of high attrition rates. Because dolomites are generally more reactive than calcites with both SO2 and H2S, a dolomite would be the feed material of choice for a chemically active fluid bed.

Jan 1, 1974

By Michael Fehler, Hidenshi Kaieda, Leigh House

Hydraulic fracturing has gained in popularity in recent years as a way to determine the orientations and magnitudes of tectonic stresses. By augmenting conventional hydraulic fracturing measurements with detection and mapping of the microearthquakes induced by fracturing, we can supplement and independent1 y confirm information obtained from conventional analysis. Important information obtained from seismic monitoring includes: the state of stress of the rock, orientation and spacing of the major joint sets, and measurements of rock elastic parameters at locations distant from the wellbore. While conventional we1l 1ogging operations can provide information about several of these parameters, the zone of interrogation is usually limited to the immediate proximity of the borehole. The seismic waveforms of the microearthquakes contain a wealth of information about the rock in regions that are otherwise inaccessible for study. By reliably locating the hypocenters of many microearthquakes, we have inferred the joint patterns in the rock. We observed that microearthquake locations do not define a simple, thin, planar distribution, that the fault plane solutions are consistent with shear slippage, and that spectral analysis indicates that the source dimensions and slip along the faults are small. Hence we be1 ieve that the microearthquakes result from slip along preexisting joints, and not from tensile extension at the tip of the fracture. Orientations of the principal stresses can be estimated by using fault plane solutions of the larger microearthquakes. By using a joint earthquake location scheme, and/or calibrations with downhole detonators, rock velocities and heterogeneities thereof can be investigated in rock volumes that are far enough from the borehole to be representative of intrinsic rock properties.

Jan 1, 1986

By S. G. Hardcastle, Akbar Sheikh

In Canadian underground uranium mines, bacterial leaching is being increasingly applied to low-grade ore reserves. At Denison Mines Limited uranium operations, old stopes are used as leaching vessels; these contain a leaching muck pile brought down by drilling and blasting from the back which contained a low-grade reef. The bacteria used require atmospheric oxygen to oxidize the pyritic ore. A study was initiated to evaluate the ventilation, including oxygen supply, specifically, of flood leaching stopes during their rest period. The method of ventilation investigated was a single ended compressed air system which feeds airlines laid under the muckpile and carried through the inlet pressure bulkhead. The air delivery system was tested for post- blast integrity with a sulphur hexafluoride, SF6, tracer gas technique. This was injected into the intake compressed air line and collected at the stope's borehole exhaust in grab-sampling bags. The samples were analyzed with a laboratory gas chromatograph and results provided information on the stope's airflow, average residence time, overall clearance time, volume of the airpath and the airflow distribution. The borehole exhaust was monitored by anemometer and psychrometer and indicated that the psychrometric conditions in the stope were independent of the area's ambient climate. Evaluation of the exhaust's standard gaseous composition showed the oxygen consumption of the bacteria to be independent of the investigated flow range. Field derived results are compared with computer models, theoretical predictions and laboratory investigations.

Jan 1, 1987

By James P. Dorian

Dramatic economic and political reform is under way in the transitional economies of the world. Transition extends beyond the restructuring of a nation's economy and political thinking. It also affects social, cultural and even religious aspects of society. Transition is a long-term process and generally unstable as the pace of reform is rarely the same across the many spheres of society. As nations modify their economies, industrial activities - including minerals exploration, extraction, processing and trade - are also being affected, according to a Financial Times of London management report. Mining policies are being revised to encourage greater foreign involvement, while legal regimes are being rewritten to protect foreign investments. From India to Peru, and South Africa to Russia, countries have been preparing, improving and expanding foreign investment laws, mining codes and economic stimulus measures to accelerate their minerals development. Privatization of mining is proceeding in many nations. Meanwhile, corporatization of former ministries and government agencies responsible for mining is also occurring. According to Minerals and Mining in the Transitional Economies: Poised For the Future, common objectives in the restructuring of a mining industry are to enhance overall economic and industrial growth, improve efficiencies in mineral recovery and use, acquire newer, advanced technologies, reduce environmental repurcussions of mining and improve safety conditions. The nature of mining is changing noticeably within the transitional economies. The industry is becoming more re¬sponsive to market forces and private sector concerns. The new report examines the changing characteristics of mining in the transitional economies. These include nations moving from centrally planned to market economies, as well as countries in the midst of economic and political reform, including the liberalization of industry. Information is presented to help business planners understand the impacts of transition on mining activities and re-evaluate their longterm strategies and market development policies. The document is divided into 10 chapters. Five of them are devoted to the evolving mining industries of Russia, South Africa, India, Peru and China. These countries were highlighted because their minerals sectors are undergoing changes. These include the opening up of their resources to foreign mining companies. According to the report's author, mining in the transitional economies during the next decade will be characterized by: ? Continued rewriting of national mining policies to create more favorable investment climates. ? Increased exploration for gold and selected base metals in newly opened regions. ? Innovative project financing schemes involving multiple partners and international lending institutions, such as the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD). ? Increased gold and copper ore production capacity resulting from new investment and expansion of existing operations. ? Continued geographical shifting of metallurgical processing facilities from developed to other mineral-producing nations. ? Privatization of state-owned mining and processing assets requiring advanced technologies for improvement or expansion. ? Increased awareness of environmental concerns in business decisions related to mining and metallurgy.

Jan 1, 1997

By Donald A. Dahlstrom

INTRODUCTION Solid-liquid separation is an important and many times a critical step (or steps) in a mineral or coal processing plant. Some examples of typical critical separations are as follows: 1. Operating a seven to eight stage CCD thickening circuit to re¬cover almost all of the caustic and alumina trihydrate values in an alumina plant. This must be accomplished with highly scaling slurries, starting temperatures of over 100°C and operate on a closed circuit system. 2. Making a filter step operate to produce a proper moisture for the balling step so that the pellet furnace can produce a proper product. Bentonite addition must be minimized and a good quality filtrate must be maintained to prevent abrasion of the internal parts of the filter. 3. Operating a closed water system in a coal washing plant so that reclaimed water containing less than one percent suspended solids is produced for reuse to maintain beneficiation ef¬ficiency. Refuse solids must also be thickened so that they can be effectively dewatered to meet state disposal requirements. 4. Recovering phosphoric acid values from a slurry containing gypsum and other gangue solids at an elevated temperature. This must be done while minimizing wash water and maximizing P2O5 re¬covery while simultaneously minimizing scale problems. While solid-liquid separations are important to overall performance in the processing plant flowsheet, it is also a significant factor in plant costs. Capital and operating costs for all the solid-liquid separation steps (includ¬ing water reclamation for reuse) in such plants are probably between 10 and 20%. Energy consumption can also be important in these separations. For example, in the copper concentrator, it is the third largest category in energy consumption, after comminution and flotation. Obviously, solid-liquid separation steps in a plant demand proper atten¬tion in design in order to achieve both optimum performance and cost. Simultaneously, knowledge of funda¬mentals are important to improve results in existing plants.

Jan 1, 1986

By Jed H. Mosgrove

One of the most interesting of all the subjects required of persons studying the different facets of coal mining is coal mine gases. Some mine gases have been a real problem since the very beginning of underground mining, and in the early days there was insufficient knowledge to cope with them. The history of mining shows that until about the last 50 years, much work was done primarily by the hand methods which are primitive by today's standards. Miners had to contend with gases without the aid of enclosed lighting, permissible mine machinery, sophisticated testing devices, and high-pressure ventilating fans. In early days the miners were not educated about the different mine gases nor did they have the technical equipment to determine the actual composition of the deadly atmospheres they encountered. They simply applied a descriptive term to each gas or mixture of gases depending on its effect on a person or the surrounding atmosphere. The gases or mixtures of gases were then referred to as "damps," a term which was probably derived from the German word "dampf," meaning vapors or gases. The more common damps encountered were : Blackdamp A condition of the atmosphere in which a miner's light would be extinguished and in which breathing would be difficult, sometimes even resulting in suffocation. An atmosphere deficient in oxygen which could contain a combination of any of the mine gases Firedamp A flammable mixture of methane and air which would either burn or explode when ignited. White Damp A mixture of gases containing carbon monoxide, most often found in mines during fires or after explosions.

Jan 1, 1981

By J. D. Miller, C. L. Lin

As the techniques and resolution for three-dimensional spatial analysis have advanced in the last decade, it is now possible to map in detail the microstructure of multiphase materials in three-dimensional digital space. In this regard, three-dimensional X-ray microtomography offers a unique imaging capability. Spatial resolution on the order of 10 µm can be achieved with the use of microfocus X-ray generators. Recently, a state-of-the-art cone beam X-ray microtomography system was installed at the University of Utah for the quantitative analysis of multiphase materials in three dimensions. This facility was designed to obtain 2,048 by 2,048-pixel reconstruction over a 10-mm diameter, while also allowing for the imaging of somewhat larger (40-mm) objects. The system is capable of handling high-density materials, even materials having a density as high as 8.0 g/cm3. This unique, one-of-a-kind instrument can be used to obtain three-dimensional spatial reconstruction for many applications, such as three-dimensional liberation analysis, pore structure analysis of particle beds during filtration and the air-void system of concrete structures. The utilization of X-ray microtomography not only allows for the quantitative analysis of multiphase systems but also allows, for the textural characterization and determination of phase continuity. This paper presents information regarding the current use of this new facility and a review of potential applications for the advanced analytical system. Key words: Cone beam X-ray microtomography, Three-dimensional analysis, Material characterization

Jan 1, 2003

Open pit optimization and mine design depend upon a realistic estimate of the grade-tonnage dis¬tribution. The estimate should reflect what can be reasonably recovered and processed. The McCoy/Cove operation in central Nevada is a gold and silver mine. Recoverable reserve estimations of gold and silver were made using indicator kriging and the indirect log normal variance correction to construct the grade- tonnage distribution. Optimal pits were generated using this distribution, and the results were compared to the pits generated by ordinary kriging and indicator kriging block mean methods. The results indicate that the proposed method for multimetal recoverable reserve estimation shows an improvement in terms of predicting the recoverable tons and grades. The optimal pits generated from the recoverable resource model are larger than those generated by the ordinary kriging and indicator kriging block mean methods. This model maximizes the overall recovery of the mineral resource.

Jan 1, 1999

By H. Soto, G. Barbery

The effect of particle size on the flotation of coarse particles is analyzed. It is concluded that turbulence and the presence of the froth layer are detrimental to the recovery of coarse particles during conventional flotation. A counter-current column cell is proposed to avoid these two factors. In this column, a net upwards flow of water is prevalent, such that no froth is allowed to form on the top. Also, the levitation of heavy bubble-particle aggregates is helped by the ascending water current. Preliminary work at laboratory level with kilogram-size samples indicated that under similar conditions recoveries in the column were much higher than in conventional cells. Flotation results obtained with coarsely sized phosphate and quartz samples are presented. One interesting feature of this type of column is very fast flotation kinetics. Thus, a short column (only 55-cm collection zone) yielded, full recovery of floatable values.

Jan 1, 1992

By Dong-mei Zhang, Feng Zhang, Hong-Wei Huang, Qiang Huang, Bin Ye

"1. INTRODUCTION Nowadays, many cities around the world have constructed metro tunnels to alleviate transportation pressure from rapid urbanization. In soft soil areas, metro tunnels are usually constructed by shield-tunneling method due to its high efficiency and little disturbance to environment. However, the tunnels may show significant post-construction settlement after several years of operation. Take Shanghai Metro line 2 for example, the maximum longitudinal settlement reached 160mm after ten years of operation, shown in Figure 1. When analyzing varying factors that contribute to the long-term settlement of tunnels, the effect of cyclic loading from train vibration is rarely taken into consideration for most researches only focus on the influence of leakage problems in the tunnel while neglecting train vibration induced leakage and resulting settlement. It’s true that metro tunnels from shield-tunneling method are prone to have leakage problems due to the special structural configuration. Furthermore, trains move hundreds of times inside the tunnel every day, which inevitably will cause accumulation and dissipation of excess pore pressure. When the excess pore pressure dissipates, tunnel settlement induced by train vibration occurs(Deng F H, 2007). Although researchers (Zheng et al., 2005; Wongsaroj et al., 2007; Mair, 2008; Shin et al., 2012; Zhang et al., 2012, 2015) conducted extensive numerical analysis on the relationship between tunnel settlement and relative permeability of tunnel to surrounding soil by treating tunnels as permeable media, their attention was only paid to the tunnel settlement from reduction of hydrostatic pressure in the ground, rather than from the dissipation of excess pore pressure generated by train vibration. Therefore, the influence of train vibration on the long-term settlements of metro tunnels is still not clear."

Jan 1, 2016

By Alan C. Noble

Ore reserves are often less than 30% of geologic resource estimates that are initially prepared by exploration geologists. Differences of this magnitude between resources and reserves can lead to serious . problems in the early valuation of properties when the geologic resource estimates are interpreted to represent ore reserves and are later found to be misleading and gross overstatements of ore reserves. The geologist can avoid such difficulties by considering the implications of mining, metallurgical recovery, and economics early in the project and by using appropriate qualifiers in the resource statement Examples using typical deposit characteristics are used to demonstrate how cutoff grade, stripping ratio, dilution, mining extraction and metallurgical recovery affect ore reserve estimations.

Jan 1, 1992

By Maurice Jackson et a1

Golder Moffitt and Associates (GMA)", were commissioned to reassess a large metallic low grade orebody. One of the aims of the study was to estimate recoverable reserves. Recoverable reserves are here defined as ore reserves for a specific mining block size. The mining block is that block on which the decision that the material is ore or waste is made. Recoverable reserves take into consideration mining methods. New methods for solving this type of problem were recently developed in Geostatistics and so for this reason GMA called for the technical assistance of the Centre de Geostatistique (C.G). The complete estimation was done using the geostatistical techniques and programs of the C.G together with some of the programs of GMA. As the mine was in production at the time the study commenced it was-possible to make frequent checks on the estimated values using blast-hole data. The ore reserves were also estimated using the more conventional interpolation method of inverse square of distance weighting.

Jan 1, 1979

By R. Q. Honaker

Although the fundamental principles of hindered bed classifiers are relatively simple, the complex interactions between the operating parameters provide a degree of difficulty that hinders the ability for on-line plant optimization. Thus, a dynamic population balance model was developed for determining the hindered settling velocity of particles varying in density and size. The steady-state results of the model include partition curves as a function of particle size and density as well as metallurgical data. A statistical comparison of the simulation results with those obtained from industrial units reveal a high level of accuracy with adjusted R2 values greater than 0.95.

Jan 1, 1999

By N. Damiano, J. Noll, C. Zhou, J. DuCarme

"Preventing machine-related injuries is one of the major safety concerns in underground coal mines. Severe injuries and fatalities occur when a miner is struck, crushed, or pinned by mining equipment such as a continuous mining machine (CMM), shuttle car, or a scoop. Proximity detection systems (PDSs) have been applied in mining to reduce these types of injuries and fatalities. All of the PDSs that are currently approved by the Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) for use in underground coal mines are magnetic-field based and could be affected by metallic objects such as trailing cables. Researchers from the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) investigated the influence of trailing cables on the performance of PDSs. In particular, the magnetic field coupled from proximity system generators to a de-energized trailing cable were characterized. The results show that significant energy can be coupled from the proximity system generators to a trailing cable when there is a closed loop in the cable. The effect on PDS performance from the magnetic field radiated around an energized trailing cable was also quantified for different current amplitudes in the cable. It is shown that the magnetic field caused by the electric current in the trailing cable mainly consists of a 60-Hz signal and its harmonics which cause little interference to the PDS. The results presented in this paper can help PDS manufacturers to design better systems that are more immune to these effects. INTRODUCTION An average of 250 injuries occur every year during operation of Continuous mining machines (CMMs), and 43 miners have been killed by striking or pinning accidents involving CMMs in the U.S. from 1984 to 2015 (Mine Safety and Health Administration, 2015). In addition, there have been 10 fatal accidents involving mobile haulage equipped with trailing cables from 2000 to 2015 (Noll et al., 2017). In response to these fatalities and injuries the Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) promulgated a regulation in 2015 requiring the use of a proximity detection system (PDS) on all CMMs except full-face machines and proposed a regulation in 2016 which would require a PDS on other mobile underground equipment. Current PDSs approved for underground use are magnetic-field based. The PDS contains machine-mounted magnetic field generators that create fields around the machine. The other part of the PDS is a miner-wearable component (MWC) that reads the flux density of the generators. These systems use the magnetic field strength readings from the MWC to determine whether a miner is at a safe distance from the machine. A stable magnetic field is essential for the accuracy of the system."

Jan 1, 2018

By R. C. Emmett

Gravity sedimentation is one of the most widely used unit operations in mineral processing and hydrometallurgy. Properly selected and operated sedimentation equipment can provide probably the most economical means of concentrating solids or clarifying solutions. Because of the variety of different approaches possible, including the use of modern flocculants, it is easy to overlook the optimum approach in selecting equipment. The different types of sedimentation systems that can be used in the minerals field and the sizing methods that are currently employed will be discussed here. Sedimentation applications usually fall into two areas, clarification or thickening. While the two operations are basically similar, the difference in emphasis (a well-clarified overflow as opposed to a highly concentrated underflow) results in significant differences in testing, equipment design, and operation. Clarifiers may be merely simple settling vessels with no special features, other than ample volume to provide the detention time needed for suspended solids to settle out of the feed slurry. Or, they can be designed to employ elaborate solids-contact techniques utilizing coagulants or flocculants to achieve more rapid clarification through the growth of particle agglomerates. Thickeners also are available in a wide variety of designs, with the main differences concentrated in the design of the raking mechanism. Thickeners operating in series (continuous countercurrent decantation or CCD) are used to recover valuable solution or purify the insoluble solids. Tray thickeners are used for recovering fine particulate solids such as alumina seed, but in other applications have been supplanted largely by unit thickeners or inclined plate units. Thickeners and clarifiers sometimes are used for storage of either solids or overflow liquor, or employed as precipitating reactors, such as in desilication applications. The use of flocculants and coagulants is much more common in modern processing plants, primarily due to the reduction in capital costs rendered possible through the use of these reagents. The terms flocculant and coagulant are often used interchangeably; generally, it is understood that flocculants refer to organic, high molecular weight synthetic or natural polymers which are useful in flocculating most suspended solids, but generally are ineffective on colloidal suspensions. Coagulants refer to chemicals such as those commonly used in water treatment, alum, ferric salts, lime, etc., which are usually far more effective on colloidal solids but cannot achieve the degree of agglomeration that is possible with the polymers. In some cases, both coagulants and flocculants are used in order to achieve optimum results.

Jan 1, 1986

By Patrick McElhinney, Jacob Carr, Bruce Whisner, Cory DeGennaro, Jingcheng Li

Since 2016, electromagnetic interference (EMI) of personal dust monitors (PDMs) with magnetic proximity detection systems (PDSs) has been observed in underground coal mines. The EMI causes the magnetic field measurements of a PDS to change, which, in turn, alters the calculated location of the miner relative to the machine. Any altered location calculation can potentially cause the PDS to fail to warn a worker who is at an unsafe distance from the machine, arousing a serious concern on safety hazard caused by EMI in underground mines. The search for EMI mitigation strategies led to the development and use of large shielding pouches and boxes to hold the entire PDM to reduce its magnetic emission. Research on these pouches and boxes found that although they were able to reduce the emitted radiation from the PDM, they also disturbed the magnetic field of the PDS, affecting its performance. Researchers from the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) have focused on shielding internal PDM components rather than shielding the entire PDM. The PDM air pump motor is one of the PDM components that has been identified as a major source of electromagnetic radiation and has been selected for further study and tests. The measurements show that a small copper or aluminum foil enclosure can effectively reduce the magnetic emission of the motor by between 50 and 85% at 73 kHz. This study compares the test results of the air pump motor with various cost-effective shielding materials. The data provided in this paper can serve as a reference for shielding enclosure design of the PDM air pump motor to reduce its electromagnetic emission as one form of EMI mitigation strategy.

By Bilgehan Kekec, Sertac Dündar, Niyazi Bilim

"Knowledge of the abrasion resistance of aggregates is important when using them for asphalt and concrete mixes and highway construction materials. In this study, the usability of natural building stone waste as aggregates for different engineering applications was investigated. To this end, test samples were obtained from a number of natural stone quarries and stone cutting factories. The abrasion tests were carried out on the test samples and results were compared between samples. The abrasion strength values were determined with both the Micro-Deval (MDe) and the Los Angeles (LA) abrasion test methods. A correlation coefficient was also determined between the LA and MDe tests results using an appropriate statistical model.Introduction The rapid consumption of natural resources has led researchers to work on the efficient utilization of such resources. To this end one can convert waste into useful raw materials, or determine alternative uses of the industrial waste materials. This has become increasingly important as storing or dumping waste may result in environmental problems. In addition, the use of industrial waste in a different application of the construction industry prevents rapid consumption of limited natural resources and can mitigate environmental problems related to raw material production, Industrial waste such as blast furnace slag, fly ash, building demolition material, marble waste and dismantled asphalt have been used as highway and concrete materials (Ahmed 1993, Ramaswamy and Aziz 1992, Schroeder 1994, Ceylan and Manca 2013, Holtz and Eighmy 2000, Hebhoub et al 2011). It is very important to analyze whether these aggregates are of the required quality in terms of their application and their economic life. This analysis can be carried out using various tests such as the Micro-Deval and the Los Angeles abrasion tests, sieve analysis, durability chemical resistance, peeling and adhesion, and freezing-thawing tests (Erdem et al 1996). Specifications for aggregates also include terms that define the grain shape, cleanliness and surface textures."

Jan 1, 2017

By L. Gertsch, R. Gertsch

Mechanical mining is steadily gaining in usage in the mining industry. A variety of machines are now being used, including tunnel boring machines, roadheaders, continuous miners, surface miners and augers. These machines have advantages compared to drill-and-blast mining methods, including increased safety, lower cost, uniform muck size and accurately sized openings. A century of experience with mechanical methods has paid dividends to the coal industry. Current trends guarantee eventual development of true general-purpose hard-rock mechanical mining machines. When several significant challenges have been met, mechanical miners will become integrated mining systems and will determine the design of mines.

Jan 1, 2002

By Rex L. Outzen

Houston International Minerals Borealis Project is an open pit heap leach operation. The operation uses open pit mining, two stage crushing, agglomeration, heap leaching, zinc precipitation and induction refining to produce approximately 50,000 ounces of gold per year. Due to the ore being extremely ameanable to heap leach processing techniques, low manpower requirements and efficient management, the operation is one of the lowest cost gold producing operations in the United States.

Jan 1, 1984

By M. Li, J. D. Miller

It has been discovered that water insoluble alcoholic solutions of alkyl hydroxamic acids serve as selective collectors for the flotation of phosphate mineral resources (Miller et al., 2000). The effectiveness of the new collector chemistry has been demonstrated by the results from single stage bench scale flotation experiments for feed material from plants in Florida, North Carolina, and Utah. In the best case, from experiments with low grade (5% P20,) coarse feed (16 x 35 mesh), a single stage phosphate recovery of 95% was achieved with a concentrate grade of 31% P20,. Such a separation efficiency could not be achieved using the traditional fatty acid/fuel oil collectors as is evident from a comparison of the respective grade/recovery curves.

Jan 1, 2002