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By R. U. Jackson

Belt conveying is a method of transportation that requires proper servicing and maintenance if completely economical results are to be obtained from the system. With a trucking system, it is common practice to deliver the trucks to a servicing station each day or at the end of each shift. With railroad transportation there is a similar procedure. Sufficient credit is seldom given to this periodic inspection and maintenance procedure, yet it is the key to the successful operation of trucking and rail haulage systems. How about the belt conveyor transportation system? Here is a system that requires no operator for each individual unit. It requires only a main switch and an adequate sequence interlocking system, and the system is so simple to operate that maintenance is considered as only a casual requirement-nothing is done about it until after trouble has developed.

Jan 1, 1956

By George H. C. Norman

A NUMBER of methods have been developed for the determination of the dust concentration in air, some of which have been reported as very efficient and for research may be more satisfactory than the method about to be described. In practical mine use, however, the accurate research equipment is unwieldy and requires a high degree of technical skill to manipulate it. Also, it gives less general practical information to the operator in the same length of time than the method described here. Moreover, it is doubtful whether at the present stage of affairs the results obtained from the precise methods have any more practical significance than those obtained with simpler and more portable apparatus, which can rapidly give a sufficiently reliable indication of the relative dust hazard. HISTORY OF DUST DETERMINATION IN ONTARIO The first record of mine-dust determination in Ontario is given in an article by Dr. J. H. Elliott,' in which he records a few dust counts made with the Palmer spray apparatus. There were insufficient data from which to draw any definite conclusions or reasonably compare with present-day counts using the konimeter. The first konimeter dust sampling was started in the Porcupine district in 1926, using light-field counting without adhesive and with no sample treatment before counting. A method of semidark-field counting was used from about 1928 to 1931 and dark-field illumination was adopted permanently about December 1931. The konimeter has been continued as the principal means of dust sampling in the mines of Ontario, where South African practice has been adopted because in South Africa most careful study has been given the problem of silicosis, and very complete records of work done there are

Jan 1, 1937

By R. W. Shoenberger, J. E. McNulty, B. R. Kuchta, William Spackman, A. A. Terchick, M. E. Hopkins, Norman Schapiro, R. J. Gray, A. F. Duzy, M. P. Corriveau

INTRODUCTION * The United States is fortunate in having abundant reserves of metallurgical-grade coals. Although these coals are better in quality and more accessible than most metallurgical-grade coals found throughout the rest of the world, the best grades of these coals are being depleted. Consequently, more efficient exploration tools and techniques, such as advanced methods of core drilling and logging, correlation by petrography, paleontology, palynology, † physical stratigraphy, and geophysical methods are being used to help assess the extent and quality of the remaining coal reserves. Exploration and assessment of new and existing coal properties become of utmost importance in determining ( 1 ) the economic justification for mining the coal, (2) the optimum design of the preparation plant, and (3) the most effective use of the coal. Recent progress has been made in relating mineral matter, especially pyrite, in coal to geologic conditions and paleogeographic trends. l * Editor's note: Because of the numerous and varied contributions of the associate authors of this chapter, the text does not differentiate between sections prepared by each individual as has been done in other chapters. † Palynology is the science concerned with plant microfossils, especially spores. pollen. and other fossils of microscopic size.

Jan 1, 1979

By H. C. George

The Wisconsin Zinc District, or the Upper Mississippi Lead and Zinc District as it is often called, lies in the southwestern corner of Wisconsin, in Grant, Iowa and Lafayette Counties, and it includes adjoining parts of Illinois and Iowa. The district is about 70 miles long, north and south, and about 40 miles wide, east and west. It lies wholly within what is geologically known as the non-glaciated area of the Upper Mississippi Valley. HISTORY OF THE DISTRICT The district was first opened up as a lead producer in 1822. From this time until 1860, about 205,000 tons of cog lead (galena) and washed lead (galena) was produced from shallow crevices and openings. From 1860 to 1900, about 74,500 tons was produced, and since that time, from 5000 to 7000 tons has been produced annually. Since 1900, most of the lead concentrate produced has been as a byproduct of the zinc mines. The first zinc ores were mined about 1862. These were the carbonate ores, locally known as "drybone." Very little zinc blende was mined in the district, previous to 1875. The zinc blende ores mined from 1875 to 1900 were mostly of the high-grade, hand-cobbed, sheet-ore class, which usually contained from 45 to 60 per cent. metallic zinc Such mines as the "Sallie Waters," "Quinlin," 'Lead Mine," "Benton Blende," and "Ida Blende," located near Benton, Wis., were mines which produced ores of this type, during this period. The mines located at Highland, the "Coker Mine" located at Livingston, Wis., and the "Opencut Mine" located at Shullsburg, Wis., were mines that were heavy zinc carbonate producers, previous to 1900. The production of zinc ores in the district from 1862 to 1890 was about 283,500 tons, mostly zinc carbonate, with a probable average metallic zinc content of 30 per cent. From 1890 to 1903, the production

Jan 1, 1918

By Reinhardt Thiessen

UNDER sulfur in coal, is usually understood that form of sulfur which is combined with iron and known as pyrite. It occurs in the form of halls, lenses, nodules, continuous layers, thin sheets, or flakes, both in horizontal planes and vertical cleavage fissures. But pyrites also occur as very fine microscopic particles, or nodules, disseminated through the compact coal. This form has had but very little consideration. Finally, there is sulfur in coal in an amicroscopic form (not visible with an ordinary microscope), probably combined with the organic matter that exists -in tile coal. This form has had considerable attention from a scientific standpoint, but has probably not been recognized enough on the economic side. One or the other, or both, of these two latter forms may comprise the larger part of the sulfur content of coal, especially after it has been washed or otherwise prepared for use.

Jan 9, 1919

By H. Tabachnick, N. Hedley

The extraction of gold and silver from ores with alkaline cyanide solutions is well known. Cyanide solutions are also good solvents for many base metal minerals, particularly most of the copper minerals. Leaver and Woolf,1 who determined the solubilities of copper minerals in 0.10 pct sodium cyanide solution, showed that malachite, cuprite, chalcocite, and bornite are readily soluble in cyanide; least soluble are chalcopyrite and chrysocolla. The Mining Chemicals Laboratory of American Cyanamid Co. has studied the possibilities of using cyanide solutions for leaching base metals. In this article the authors present the results of their experiments with cyanide leaching to reduce the copper content of a zinc concentrate from 0.050 pct to the desired specification of less than 0.02 pct. Zinc Ore Sample: The sample of commercial zinc ore used in this investigation to produce zinc concentrates was ball mill feed ranging from 1/2 in. to fines. The ore was crushed to —10 mesh and riffled into 600-g charges for zinc flotation. Analysis revealed 4.54 pct Zn and 0.005 pct Cu. Examined microscopically, the ore consisted essentially of cream-colored sphalerite and carbonate gangue. It contained a small amount of pyrite, partly tarnished. The only copper mineral identified was chalcopyrite, mostly smaller than 20µ, some of which occurred as attachments on sphalerite. Flotation Procedure: Batches of zinc concentrates were made as required according to the following general procedure. A 600-g charge of —10 mesh ore was ground for 4 min at 60 pct solids in a laboratory steel rod mill. Screen sizing showed it to be all —35 mesh with 42 pct —200 mesh. The pulp was transferred to a Fagergren laboratory flotation machine, diluted to 25 pct solids and conditioned for 5 min with 0.6 lb per ton CuSO4, . -5H2O. It was then conditioned with 0.10 lb per ton Sodium Aerofloat promoter and floated for 5 min with pine oil as frother and creosote as froth stiff-ener. The pH during flotation was 8.5. A typical analysis of zinc concentrate subjected to leaching is 44.41 pct Zn and 0.051 pct Cu. The ratio of concentration was close to 10 to 1. Leaching Procedure: Aero Brand cyanide, technical calcium cyanide analyzing 49.5 pet NaCN equivalent, was used for all cyanide leaching tests. For each test three rougher concentrates floated as described were combined (total weight close to 180 g) and the water content adjusted to 150 ml. The percent solids in the pulp was thus 55. After a weighed amount of cyanide flakes had been added, the pulp was agitated on rolls for a given period, then filtered and washed. Filtrate and washed concentrate were assayed for copper content. The procedure for ammonia leaching was similar to the cyanide process. A series of tests was run in which the effects of ammonia as a solvent for copper in the zinc rougher concentrate were investigated. In each test 180 g of zinc rougher concentrate was leached with 150 ml of ammonia solution. Various strengths of ammonia and times of leaching were investigated. The results are shown in Table I. It is apparent that ammonia was a poor solvent for copper in the zinc concentrate; 60 min of agitation with a relatively strong NH:, solution extracted only 2 pct of the copper. CYANIDE LEACHING TESTS Effect of Solution Strength: The solvent effects of 0.125, 0.187, and 0.250 pct NaCN equivalent solutions were compared for leaching periods of 15 min. Residue and filtrate were assayed for copper content. The copper content of the filtrate plus wash was calculated back to the original volume of cyanide solution (150 ml). The effects of cyanide strength are given in Table II, It will be noted that 15 min leaching with 0.25 pct NaCN equivalent solution extracted 74.6 pct of the copper in the zinc concentrate. The leached product assayed 0.013 pct Cu, appreciably below the required specification of 0.020 pct. Effect of Leaching Time: Portions of zinc concentrate were leached with 0.25 pct NaCN equivalent

Jan 1, 1961

By R. S. Kinasevich, D. D. Crabtree, D. W. Fuerstenau, T. P. Meloy, A. L. Mular

This paper presents details of the concept that size reduction in comminution machines takes place by three mechanisms; namely impact, abrasion, and chipping grinding. Experimental evidence is presented to show that each of these comminution mechanisms produces particles of a characteristic size distribution. The actual product from a comminution device has been postulated to be the result of a composite of these three types of mechanisms. Composite curves are demonstrated for a material following the Gaudin-Schuhmann, Gaudin-Meloy, and Rosin-Rammler size distributions. About forty years ago, Gaudin1 showed that grinding may be considered a combination of impact and attrition. Since that time, major efforts have been devoted to studies, both experimental and theoretical, of impact and compression fracture, while attrition has been almost wholly neglected, at least quantitatively. A significant attempt to distinguish between attrition and impact grinding is the work of Tanaka2 in Japan. By means of an instrumented abrasion grinder and a drop weight device, he determined coefficients relating the increase in surface area of various materials to the energy expended by the two methods of comminution. He showed that physical properties of a material determine its response to attrition and impact grinding. By extending his ideas to ball milling, he concluded that to a large extent the basic comminution process in a ball mill is due to the impact of falling media. Because Tanaka used a mass of particles in his drop weight device, however, he did not obtain pure impact size reduction. The purpose of this paper is to define basic mechanisms of size reduction, to verify that each has a characteristic and meaningful distribution curve, and to show how a combination of these mechanisms results in a size distribution very like that produced by grinding mills. DEFINITION OF COMMINUTION MECHANISMS The product from a grinding device will be considered to be the sum of the contributions resulting from the action of three basic mechanisms of size reduction which operate in a ball and rod mill. These are impact grinding and two forms of attrition, namely abrasion grinding and chipping grinding. Each is defined below. Impact Grinding: If a straight line is obtained when the cumulative weight fraction finer than a given size is plotted on log-log paper as a function of that size, the slope of the line is defined as the distribution modulus. A number of investigators 3,4,5 have shown that impact fracture of single specimens of different composition and shape results in a distribution of daughter particles that exhibit a distribution modulus of unity. This has also been true for materials broken in slow compression. Moreover, under slow compression or impact fracture conditions, theoretical distribution equations6*' which approximate the Gaudin-Schuhmann distribution when the distribution modulus is close to unity agree reasonably well with the experimentally obtained products. If one now considers a comminution process where many impact or compression fracture events are taking place, then any rational summation of the individual events yields, in the finer size range, a Gaudin-Schuhmann distribution whose distribution modulus is also unity. If the size distribution of the product from a mill has a distribution modulus of unity, it is implied that particles are fractured in a manner which results in a comminution event having a distribution like that obtained for the breakage of single specimens. These impact events would occur when a particle is smashed between balls or between a ball and the mill liner. Attrition, on the other hand, is that form of grinding which cannot be called impact grinding, and comprises both abrasion and chipping grinding. Abrasion Grinding: Abrasion is a form of surface wear resulting when particles rub against each other or against balls or the mill liner of a tumbling mill, somewhat like a piece of wood being rubbed over a piece of sandpaper. The surface wears at a more or

Jan 1, 1964

By W. E. Ruder

IT has been pointed out by Stead 1 that grains of considerable coarseness may be developed in steels containing from 3 to 5 per cent. of silicon, and in a previous paper 2 the present author has shown that under the proper conditions of annealing single grains having an area of 50 sq. cm. may be obtained. It is the purpose of this paper to discuss in more detail the conditions, promoting the growth of these grains, in the hope that the experiments described may throw some additional light upon the general problem of grain growth in metals. These silicon steels lend themselves particularly well to such experiments because of the ease with which the change in structure may be followed and because of the fact that the effect of the carbon present is largely obliterated by the high percentage of silicon. This forms a solid solution with the iron, which acts very much like a pure metal. This alloy has been found to have but one critical point, viz., Are. This point, determined by Roberts-Austen for Hadfield's 4 per cent. Si alloy, was found to lie at 703° C. Vigouroux3, in working with pure Fe-Si alloys, finds this point to rise from 750° C. for 0.5 per cent. Si to 860° for 6 per cent alloy, with a flat region in the curve from 3 to 4 per cent. Si. No accurate determination of this point has been undertaken by the present author, but it has been roughly determined to lie between 730° and 750°.

Jan 12, 1913

By W. R. Crane

While professiorlally engaged in the oil- and gas-fields of Kansas, in measuring the pressure and flow of gas-wells, and studying the phenomena attendant upon the production of both oil and gas, I noticed in the flow of gas a peculiar and interesting feature. That there are actual lines of flow in liquids (non-compressible fluids) discharged through an orifice, or a short section of pipe, is shown by the external shape of the discharge—the vena contracts. Such lines of flow are not observable in the discharge of gas from an orifice. It can hardly be questioned that they exist. That they are not apparent is probably due to the very small weight of the gaseous particles, which climinishes the momentum of their movement in a given direction, acquired before they issue from the orifice, and also to the expansion of the gases, which would exert a powerful influence in overcoming any such tendency in their flow. Gas flowing from an orifice, supplied by a large reservoir or blowing-engine, exhibits almost the reverse of what is noticed with liquids. Namely, the gas assumes the form of an inverted truncated cone, of large angle: with its apex-end at the orifice. (See BB, Fig. 1.) This external ahape assunled by the flow of gas shows, however, marked differences under varying conditions of volume and pressure. For instance, a large volume of gas under high pressure, flowing through a 2- or 3-in. pipe, as in the case of a natural gas-well, assumes a more definite conical form, the angle of which increases as the pressure falls. Moreover, outside of the well-defined inverted cone is a thin conical heath or zone of gas, A A, the angle of which is considerably greater than that of the main cone, and increases with +1UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS, LAWRENCE, KANSAS.

Jan 1, 1905

By C. H. Jr. Herty

DURING the past few years frequent reference has been made to a certain type of iron known generally as "bad iron," "dirty iron," etc., both by steelmakers and producers of iron castings.1 Open-hearth operators have claimed that such iron was entirely within the specified limits as to ordinary analysis but it was difficult to make good steel from it. It has been suggested that unreduced material in the iron is responsible, also that most trouble is experienced with the iron when the blast furnace is delivering a product whose analysis is more or less variable. Other reasons suggested are the use of scrap or borings, unsintered flue dust in the burden, a cold hearth, too high a proportion of unsuitable grade of ore, or the form of the carbon in the iron. Accordingly, a subcommittee was appointed at the fall meeting of the Open-hearth Committee of the American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers held in Pittsburgh in October, 1926, to investigate the reasons for the occurrence of this bad iron and suggest methods for preventing its appearance. This committee enlisted the cooperation of the U. S: Bureau of Mines Experiment Station at Pittsburgh in undertaking a study of pig-iron quality as affecting the open hearth. The following is a report of the findings to date:

Jan 1, 1929

By W. P. Saunders, W. R. Hibbard, G. H. Eichelman

Interest in the various products of the austenite eutectoid transformation in iron-carbon alloys, particularly as produced by the isothermal sub-critical techniques introduced by Davenport and Bain,' has resulted in the application of similar heat treatments to other eutectoid transformations. Studies o f the beta copper-aluminum alloy eutectoid transformation revealed microstructures very similar to those found in iron-carbon alloys. Investigations5t6 of the kappa phase in the copper-silicon alloy system have established the eutectoid type transformation of this phase into terminal alpha and intermediate gamma phases. This transformation has been reported5 as forming a eutectoid type structure in a very sluggish manner by a long time isothermal treatment. The purpose of the present investigation is to study the products of the kappa eutectoid transformation as affected by transformation temperatures by means of microscopic and hardness methods. Preparation of Alloys The copper-silicon alloy equilibrium diagram is shown in Fig 1. The kappa field converges to a minimum silicon solubility at the eutectoid composition and all other completely kappa alloys are hypereutec-toid. Thus, kappa decomposition involves first the proeutectoid precipitation of gamma, followed by the eutectoid transformation of a lower silicon content kappa (5.2 pct) Smith6 has indicated that alloys containing between 5.4 and 5.7 pct silicon could be hot rolled, but that the latter composition was desirable in order to permit a wider kappa temperature range. The alloy was prepared by adding Baker's commercially pure silicon to an ingot of copper-silicon alloy containing 2.34 pct silicon remaining from the investigation of Brick, Martin and Angier.' Following the casting techniques of Krynitsky, Saunders and Stern,s the ingot was melted under a heavy layer of dried charcoal in a clay-graphite crucible in a gas-fired pot furnace. Small lumps of silicon were held under thc melt surface with a graphite rod. After the silicon had dissolved, the alloy was chill-cast and then remelted without a cover, stirred thoroughly, skimmed and poured into a preheated cast iron mold. The cast microstructure is shown in Fig 2. The casting, 10 X 4 X K in., was annealed at 750°C for 21 hr and furnace cooled, About }{& in. was milled from all surfaces. The plate was cut in half longitudinally and the bottom half analyzed by A.S.T.M. and The composition by weight was as follows: copper 94.24 pct, silicon 5.56 pct, iron 0.11 pct.

Jan 1, 1949

By H. M. Howe

(New York: Meeting, October, 1913.) 1. INTRODUCTION.-This paper gives the results of our micro-graphic determinations of the position of Ae3 in a series of 14 hypo-eutectoid steels of varying carbon content, one of them very rich in phosphorus, and of SEe for one hyper-eutectoid steel. We have pro-ceeded chiefly by noting the temperature -at which the reabsorption of the pro-eutectoid element is found to be complete after a 30-min. holding, but in part also by noting the temperature at which its precipitation begins. Observations on these same steels by Messrs. Burgess, Crowe, and Rawdon, of the United States Bureau of Standards, are given in a paper' issued simultaneously with this, while in a third paper s one of us compares these data with those of earlier observers. These three papers are treated as one whole by numbering their sections, tables, and illustrations continuously, and by setting the folding plates of micrographs at the end of the last paper. THE COMPOSITION OF THE STEELS EXPERIMENTED ON is given in Table I. Notation. and Definitions.-Following Osmond's development of Tschernoff's notation; in which " Ac3 " is the upper limit of the hypo-eutectoid part of the transformation range as observed in heating up, and " Ar3 " is that same limit as observed in cooling down, and following the usual custom of calling the upper limit of the hyper-eutectoid part of that range "SE," we may go farther and call this latter limit " SEc " when observed in heating up .and " SEr " when observed in cooling down.

Jan 6, 1913

By Burt C. Mariacher

To note that environmental considerations had a major im¬pact on the minerals processing industry in 1971 would be something less than a profound observation. The degree of its importance was demonstrated by MBD when it established the Environmental Committee as a new unit committee within the Division to achieve greater participation in exchange of information relating to the technologies and problems involved. It is appropriate and necessary to devote special attention to this timely aspect of minerals processing, as its influence penetrates the research, engineering and operations of almost all unit technologies that comprise minerals processing. The pollution abatement aspect of this industry has been such a dominant factor in recent years there is reason to wonder whether progress in unrelated technologies has been curtailed. Perhaps so, to some degree, but unit committee reviews presented in this article suggest rather that it would appear to have served as a catalyst for accelerated progress in development of new methods and improvement in more conventional ones. Present concepts regarding primary metal or mineral recovery and by-product potential may change considerably as a result of improved technology in waste product treatment.

Jan 2, 1972

By James R. Jones

The concern for air pollution goes back centuries as will be seen from this quotation : "Strife and coal, it seems, have a hand-in-hand historical relationship. It was thought by some . . . in the Middle Ages that burning coal filled the air with dangerous poisons. So great was the concern that in 1306 King Edward I of England passed the first and unquestionably the harshest air pollution legislation edict that history will record. His proclamation declared the use of coal an act punishable by death." As related to coal mining, the air pollution problem is primarily that of its customer when using the fuel. Thus the major impact relates to markets for coal rather than the actual mining operation itself. In the vicinity of the coal mine the problem is principally related to fugitive dust from roads, transfer facilities, loading facilities, crushers, etc., and particulate matter (dust or fly ash) from thermal dryers and air cleaning tables. FUGITIVE DUST Most state air pollution regulatory agencies now have rules and regulations requiring control of fugitive dust. Fugitive dust has been defined by the courts as particulate matter other than that emanating from a specific point such as a stack or chimney. A typical air pollution control agency regulation reads as follows : “Fugitive Dust " "No person shall cause, suffer, allow, or permit any material to be handled, transported, or stored; or a building, its appurtenances, or a road to be used, constructed, altered, repaired or demolished without taking reasonable precautions to prevent particulate matter from be- coming airborne. Such reasonable precautions shall include, where applicable, but not be limited to the following:

Jan 1, 1981

By C. A. Czako

INTRODUCTION In recent decades sintering and pelletizing of finely divided materials have become the primary tonnage producing modes of agglomeration. This statement is especially true in the iron and steel industry and, to a lesser degree, in the nonferrous, chemical and non-metallic minerals processing industries. In every industry the main objectives in agglomerating fines are essentially the same, namely to convert ores, minerals and chemicals of undesirable fineness into agglomerates characterized by a size consistency desirable for subsequent use or processing. Depending on the type of agglomeration process selected and the conditions maintained during agglomeration, the physical process of increasing size is complemented by a number of other unit processes. These processes can occur simultaneously, consecutively or in an overlapping manner. Some of these additional unit processes are incidental to the agglomeration operation, but at the same time can be critical, depending upon the subsequent use of the product. Accordingly, during processing, conditions have to be controlled to either suppress or enhance the extent of completion of these unit processes. The purpose of this report is to review laboratory testing as the basis for engineering modern sintering and pelletizing plants. Considering that most typical applications are for the iron and steel industry, agglomeration of ferrous materials is reviewed and discussed. When these total processes are adapted to suit non- ferrous materials, chemicals, or non-metallic substances, the over- all approach remains the same; only the processing parameters are affected as necessitated by the different nature of the materials.

Jan 1, 1977

By James G. Crawford

Correlation Of water with its reservoir zone or formation has been one of the applications of oil-field water analysis of greatest direct value to the petroleum engineer. The water in each producing zone tends to have diagnostic characteristics by which it can be distinguished from every other water above or below that zone in that immediate vicinity. Representative analyses of oil-field waters from producing oil and gas fields in the Rocky Mountain region are included, and the diagnostic characteristics are discussed briefly. It is concluded that the generally dilute nature of Rocky Mountain oilfield waters is a result of dilution by meteoric waters, and that there is no relationship between presence or absence of commercial oil and the character of water in a structure. Introduction The study of waters associated With oil and gas began more than 50 years ago and has been well recognized by operators, engineers, and geologists for about 30 years. It appears unnecessary at this time to recite the history of oil-field water analysis; suffice to say that it has proved its worth many times to the production engineer suddenly confronted with water problems in producing oil and gas wells. Chemists and geologists have studied the possible origin of these waters and as Yet the subject is unsolved in many important phases. There are both local and regional problems connected with the explanation of concentrations and character- istics peculiar to each field, each subsurface zone and each province. Criteria useful in postulating the Occurrence of oil Or gas in One province completely fail when applied to another, and data carefully prepared and analyzed from one field may be actually misleading when applied to another. Correlation of water with its reservoir zone or formation has been one of the applications of oil-field water analysis of greatest direct value to the engineer. The concentrations and characteristics of the waters are essential to the engineers and geologists making interpretations of electric logs in this region. The behavior of water under conditions of reservoir temperature and pressure is dependent to a great degree upon its concentration and characteristics, and thus important to the reservoir engineer. With the advent of secondary recovery methods in the Rocky Mountain region the characteristics and treatment of water will become increasingly important. Premises upon which Correlation Is Based A brief review of the geochemical history of oil-field waters will suffice to present the premises upon which correlations of the waters are based. Sedimentary rocks which are now stratified were first sediments in seas, lakes and streams. These sediments were filled interstitially with connate water. With burial the sediments were compressed arid consolidated, integrated and indurated into bed rock and much of the connate water was dispelled. Following the formation of bed rock the strata were sub-

Jan 1, 1949

By M. L. Fuller

DURING the last several years many papers have appeared dealing with the structure of highly polished metal surfaces. The awakening of interest in this subject is due to the applicability of the electron diffrac-tion technique to the study of surfaces. The original theory of Beilby1 considered the surface of polished metals as of the nature of a super-cooled liquid or a vitreous, amorphous solid. The electron diffraction effects from polished metals have been interpreted by many to be a direct experimental proof of the correctness of the Beilby theory. This inter-pretation has been strongly opposed by others, so that at the present time the subject is in an uncertain and controversial state. In the present paper new, and hitherto unpublished, electron diffrac-tion effects from polished zinc are described. These observations indicate that the polished surface of zinc is crystalline.

Jan 1, 1938

By John D. Sullivan, Edwin J. Rogers, Chester R. Austin

THE problem of making a building unit combining the necessary physical and mechanical properties and good thermal insulation has been foremost in the minds of architects and ceramic and construction engineers for many years. This paper presents the results of studies on thermally expanding shales or clays to produce light-weight cellular products suitable for making building units. An expanded clay block suitable for building purposes should be large enough so that substantial savings may be effected in labor costs in laying the wall. The permeability should be low and it should have sufficiently good "dry-wall" characteristics to permit exposing the exterior surface to the elements, and to permit plastering directly the inside wall surface. The thermal conductivity should be low and the mechanical properties should be adequate. Obviously, a unit possessing satisfactory qualities for constructing an outside wall would be satisfactory for interior walls and for back-up purposes. The results of studies on bloating various shales or clays† and the properties of the expanded products are reported. In another paper1 basic factors involved in bloating of clays are discussed. Manufacturers of ceramic products, particularly structural clay, may encounter bloating of the ware during burning, and precautions must be followed to avoid this phenomenon. About 1927 the C. F. Burgess Laboratories, Madison, Wis., while carrying on an investigation for the American Face Brick Research Corporation, conceived the idea of intentionally bloating clay while holding it in a restrained condition, with the hope of producing a unitary cellular mass. Work was carried on until about 1931, when studies were terminated because of business conditions. These studies were continued later by The Western Brick Co., Danville, Ill., which developed a process of "inwardly expansive bloating." The major purpose of the latter investigation was to produce back-up tile to compete with concrete blocks made from Haydite or cinder aggregate. Haydite is a light-weight aggregate formed by heating certain clays or shales rapidly in a rotary kiln. While the investigations at the C. F. Burgess Laboratories or at Western Brick Co. were not carried far enough to lead to the commercial production of material for the construction of walls, particularly outside walls, they showed that certain clays could be thermally expanded and that it was possible to produce a material of low permeability with a large percentage of the total voids or cells closed. Commencing in 1939, the Ozark Chemical Co. sponsored a research program at Battelle Memorial Institute for the purpose of determining whether it is technically feasible to make thermally expanded building units, and specifically to get answers to the following questions:

Jan 1, 1942

By C. L. Kinney

The rapid increase in the amount of steel produced by the basic open-hearth process is an index of its ability to produce high-grade steel from raw materials of the most, varied physical character and chemical analysis. This inherent adaptability of the process has resulted in a lack of care in the selection of raw materials, so that in far too many cases charges are used of a chemical and physical character not justified by local economic conditions. A practice, or series of practices, should be used that will result in the greatest economy for the plant as a whole; therefore, the operations of blast furnace and open hearth must be considered together. In this paper, an effort has been made to show those variations in both open-hearth practice and cost that follow changes in the analysis of the pig iron arid it may be said that the theoretical costs shown are worthy of careful study and consideration. Carbon, manganese, silicon, phosphorus, and sulfur constitute the principal metalloids in basic pig iron and play the leading role in the production of steel by the basic open-hearth process. The percentages of each of these metalloids, with the exception of carbon, is a variable that has its genesis in the economic relation of the blast-furnace plant to its ore and fuel supplies. As the amount of carbon in the iron is a saturation function of the temperature at which it is produced, the variation in the amount carried is, for any given locality and grade of iron, practically negligible and is so considered in the eight heats discussed in this paper. The melting and refining reactions in an open-hearth furnace, either acid or basic, are essentially oxidizing and vary greatly with the type and age of the furnace, as well as the character of the fuel employed. The outstanding characteristic of the basic process, and the one that explains its predominance over the acid, is its ability to form out of the lime charged and the phosphorus oxidized from the charge a stable

Jan 1, 1924

The Honor Roll includes the names of all members of the Institute Whom we know to have been on active military duty it the date of compilation, Mar. 5, 1919. Despite our efforts to have this list accurate and complete, some of our members who have been rendering military service are probably left off because of the fact that we have not been informed of their military connection. The list of men in military service has been compiled with great difficulty owing to the modesty of the members, who in their patriotism began their service but neglected to send us notice. In 1918, We published a separate Honor Roll of the Institute in which we included a list entitled "On active duty in other departments of the service" which contained the names of members who were rendering important emergency service to the Government other than in the Army. This list is entirely omitted this year because any list We might compile for this purpose would be entirely inadequate and must inevitably do injustice to a large number of our members who have been devoting great time and making many sacrifices for the benefit of the government along lines not within our ken. It is not too much to say that almost all our membership in this country has been, more or less directly, doing its uttermost for the successful prosecu¬tion of the war. The active work of many of these members we are Well aware of, as is also the rest of the civilized world. Faithful and wholehearted efforts on the part of many other members we have not been informed of, so that any list would be both incomplete and unsatisfactory.

Jan 1, 1923