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By Kot F. v. Unrug

The present combination of coal market prices and reserves, situated in the Central Appalachian Coal Field, is such that mining of smaller coal reserve blocks has become economically attractive. In above drainage deposits, and particularly under mountain ridges, overburden depth can be changing within a wide range. Mines operating in these deposits are usually developing mains along the center of the ridge, with panels projecting from the mains towards the outcrop. Due to changing topography, proximity of the outcrop, and related cover depth, the panels have various lengths. In this reported case study, a mine in Pike County, Kentucky, along the Kentucky ?West Virginia border, difficult ground conditions were encountered, during the development of the mains, under shallow cover, along a narrow mountain ridge. An area having unusual density of vertical joints was encountered. Mining operations were suspended because of roof stability concerns. The ground conditions were studied, analyzed, and control measures proposed to ensure safe passage through the difficult roof area of the mine. The advancement of the mains, through this area of challenging ground conditions, was successfully completed. In this paper, ground conditions are described, with an explanation of the geologic process contributing to their formation. It is interesting to note that similar locations were predicted by the authors, to be encountered in the same mine, based upon the experience gathered from studying conditions of the case described within this paper. When approaching the predicted locations, stability problems appeared to be even more challenging than those encountered previously. Due to changes in the coal market, mine management chose to move the affected mining section to another area of the mine having better coal quality. The advancement of the mains, through the difficult ground conditions, was temporarily postponed. Based upon the analysis of a probable kinematical mechanism of blocks in the mine roof, ground control measures were proposed. The actual application of these principles proved to be appropriate, ensuring safe passage through the difficult ground conditions encountered in the mine.

Jan 1, 2006

By J. R. Thoenen

For several years the Bureau of mines has been investigating the characteristics of ground vibrations produced by quarry blasts. Considerable basic information has been obtained in the course of this study, and the results have been made known to the public through various publications listed in the accompanying bibliography. The studies have been confined to obtaining fundamental knowledge of the characteristics of the vibrations themselves, because it was evident at once that he problem was extremely complicated. It was felt that any attempt to predict the effect of a ground vibration on an' type of artificial structure would be useless until the complexities of building vibrations are better understood. As opportunity offered, teats wore made in various types of structures and the effects of vibrations from many different sources were measured. In one set of tests (5)4/, it was demonstrated that the behavior of a building as quite different if it was shaken by vibrations originating outside tae foundation walls than if the source of the vibrations was within the building; vibrations coming from the round outside seemed to shake the building as a single loosely-coupled structure, whereas mechanically induced vibrations within the house seemed to set floors and walls in motion as independent units, each of which communicated its own natural motion to the adjoining member, causing a very complicated movement that was impossible to interpret.

Jan 1, 1938

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Jan 1, 1994

LOCAL COMMITTEE OF ARRANGEMENTS. Major J. W. Powell, Chairman; F. P. Dewey. Secretary; S. F. Emmons, A. S. Hewitt, J. P- Hilgard, Charles Knap, and F. W. Taylor. THE opening session was held in the hall of the new National Museum, on Tuesday evening, February 21st. President Metcalf introduced General W. T. Sherman, one of the Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, who read the following address: ADDRESS OF GENERAL SHERMAN. MR. PRESIDENT AND GENTLEMEN : I have been invited to meet you here this evening to extend to you the cordial greeting of the regents of the Smithsonian Institution, and to assure you that they are most happy to have it in their power to place at your disposal this beautiful hall, dedicated to science and art. This National Museum is the property of the United States, of which the regents of the Smithsonian are simply the custodians, and the board has delegated to its secretary, Professor Baird, the right to extend its use to the National Academy of Sciences and like kindred societies, among which we are glad to class the Institute of Mining Engineers. It is eminently fit that you should meet here at this, the nation's capital, under a roof partly your own, devoted to natural sciences, and in the shadow of the Smithsonian, founded for the exclusive purpose of collecting and diffusing knowledge among men. Of all the workers employed on earth no single class seem to me more worthy the respect of their fellows than those who seek beneath the surface for the useful minerals and metals which contribute so largely to the wealth and comfort of mankind. In no branch of human industry does intelligence come so immediately in contact with labor. To the mining engineer chemistry, mineralogy, and geology are as reading, writing, and arithmetic to the merchant;

Jan 1, 1882

By Gavin C. Dirom

? The Mining Association of British Columbia (MABC) was established through an Act of Parliament in 1901 ? The MABC represents the interests of B.C.?s ? Coal and mineral mining companies ? Smelting companies ? Advanced stage development projects ? Key areas of work: ? Environment, Health and Safety ? Policy & Government Relations ? Knowledge and Information Services

May 1, 2008

By Theodore L. Turner

This Bureau of Mines report describes calcination of kaolinitic clay in a direct-fired 2-1/2- by 24-ft rotary kiln at 750° and 775° C. Methods for preparing kaolin feed materials and characterization of calcined products are discussed. Approximately 99 pct of the alumina in a typical eastern Georgia kaolin was soluble in HC1 after calcination at either 750° or 775° C.

Jan 1, 1982

By L. B. McConville

The general term "tar sand" has been used to describe sand containing varying amounts of dense, viscous petroleum. Deposits of tar sands have been found throughout the world, often in the same geographical area as conventional petroleum. The largest one by far is known as the Athabasca Tar Sands, and is located in the province of Alberta, Canada. Actually a group of three deposits, these particular sands underlie an aggregate area of more than 12,000 square miles. Current estimates place the contained raw petroleum at about 700 billion barrels, from which as much as 300 billion barrels of synthetic oil may be recoverable under presently developed technology. For comparison, this latter quantity is roughly equivalent to five times the combined total of U.S. and Canadian crude oil reserves. With the ever-widening gap between energy supply and demand, attention is being directed to all possible energy sources - both developed and underdeveloped - and certainly the Athabasca Tar Sand deposit is one of the more important ones to merit such attention. This paper will review some of the more significant developments and attempt to place in perspective the role that this source of energy could possibly be expected to play in the foreseeable future.

Jan 1, 1974

By M. M. Gilkey

Pegmatites in Colorado occur for 150 miles along the Front Range (eastern-most range of the Rocky Mountains) from Larimer County on the north to Canon City on the south, and west into the Gunnison area. Many of the deposits have been classified. Minerals found in the various dikes include beryl, scrap and possibly punch mica, lithium-bearing minerals, columbite-tantalite, feldspar, and several rare minerals. Pegmatites are abundant in the Crystal Mountain district in Larimer County. About 5 miles south of the Crystal Mountain district and often identified with that district is the Hyatt pegmatite area. The Hyatt Ranch deposit has attracted particular attention because of the comparatively high beryl con-tent of the upper part exposed in opencut workings.

Jan 1, 1960

Water represents 80?85% of the volume of mineral pulp processed in flotation circuits. Imperatives for a more detailed focus on circuit water quality and its control have come from increasing requirements to use relatively impure primary water supplies (e.g. high salinity, treated sewage) and high proportions of recycle from tailings dams, thickener overflows, dewatered and filter products. An integrated methodology for examining process water quality and its effect on minerals separation has been developed coupled with minerals surface chemistry across the complete processing circuit. Unrecognised factors, including varying proportions of water streams (daily or hourly), colloidal precipitation, highly variable pH and Eh, reaction and dissolution of minerals, minerals surface layer coatings, residual reagents and their reaction products, and microbiological activity have been studied in eight mineral processing circuits. The methodology combines: solution survey and modelling; microbiological surveys; minerals surface analysis and modelling; and process response. It has been possible to match the predicted (model) pulp chemistry with that measured from surveys of the solution and mineral surfaces. Treatment methods have included: monitored and balanced stream combinations; organic species removal; flocculation and aggregation; induced precipitation; dissolved air flotation; ageing (oxidation, UV exposure); and chemical surface conditioning of minerals. Some specific achievements from the methodology applied in plant and laboratory testing, with examples from case studies, will be described.

Jan 1, 2001

By S. Panigrahi

The SO2-ammoniacal ammonium sulfate leach liquor generated by leaching of manganese nodules, after removal of minor quantities of iron and manganese, contained copper, nickel, cobalt, zinc and (NH4)2SO4. After extraction of copper from the leach liquor with LIX 84I, stripping of ammonia from the Cu-barren raffinate was carried out followed by precipitation of metal ions from the ammonia-stripped solution as sulfides. Leaching of the sulfide precipitate was carried out with H2SO4 to obtain a leach liquor containing 0.58 kg/m3 Cu, 2.67 kg/m3 Zn, 2.00 kg/m3 Co, 24.68 kg/m3 Ni and 10.0 kg/m3 (NH4)2SO4. After extraction of copper and zinc from the sulfate leach liquor with LIX 84I and D2EHPA, respectively, the solution was left with Co and Ni. Extraction of cobalt from the Cu- and Zn-free solution was carried out with 0.1 M PC88A and stripping of the cobalt-loaded organic was carried out with the cobalt-spent electrolyte (pH 1.4). Extraction of nickel from the cobalt-free solution was carried out with 90% neutral 1M NaPC88A followed by stripping of the nickel-loaded organic with 120 kg/m3 H2SO4 solution. Extraction of metal ions increased with increasing equilibrium pH and extractant concentration. The maximum separation factors, with respect to the pH and extractant concentration variation studies, were 3796.7 and 15350.0, respectively. The extracted species for the metal ions were CoA2?3HA and NiA2?5HA.

Jan 1, 2009

Remote sensing, in general, is the recording of light and heat from a planet's surface within a certain range of the electromagnetic spectrum. For the Earth, systems capable of this recording are the MultiSpectral Scanner (MSS) and SLAR. The former is the recording system used in satellite and will be discussed in the next section. SLAR stands for Side Looking Airborne Radar. This device sends invisible radar waves which illuminate the Earth's surface. The reflected waves are subsequently recorded as images. The system can operate through darkness and dense cloud cover, and is particularly suited for the study of geological structures at both large and small scale (Wayland 1976). Remote sensing techniques are now widely being made use of in mineral exploration, especially for those last remote 'sanctuaries' where geological data are meagre or non-existent. For places like Borneo, West Irian, the Amazon Basin etc. remote sensing, in the form of both satellite imagery and SLAR, is of considerable help, in fact more often than not the only help, to delineate geological provinces, geotectonic domains and meaningful lineaments. In the case of New Zealand, well made geological maps at scale 1:250 000 by the Geological Survey are available to the public and these provide useful preliminary grounds for the selection of target areas. However, even in this case LANDSAT imagery can be of aid as will be shown later.

Jan 1, 1977

By J. P. Gous, J. J. Sutherland

"Transalloys is a silicomanganese (SiMn) producer located in South Africa, and uses only local manganese ores to produce SiMn alloy. The plant operates five open submerged arc furnaces (SAFs) with an annual capacity of 180 000 t of saleable SiMn.Maintaining tap-holes is critical for effective furnace operation, allowing proper drainage of the furnace with minimal operator interference. Using a claygun and drill arrangement installed at each furnace, tapping occurs every four hours. Tap-holes are maintained through mickey replacement and brick repairs. Three furnaces have SiC tap-holes and two have graphite tap-holes.This paper gives a review of SAF operation, furnace and tap-hole design, daily tapping operation, and maintenance practices for repairing tap-holes.IntroductionDefining tap-hole life cycle, Steenkamp et al., (2016) highlighted four main steps: installation during furnace relines, day-to-day operations, tap-hole maintenance, and tap-hole repair. The authors argued that the design of the tap-hole area should allow for all four stages in the tap-hole life-cycle. Design principles for each stage were presented using silicomanganese (SiMn) production as a case study. Here we present a further analysis of the case study by providing practical examples of how the tap-hole life-cycle is managed at Transalloys during the design, operation, and maintenance of submerged arc furnaces (SAFs) applied in the production of SiMn.BackgroundTransalloys is the largest producer of SiMn in Africa. Its smelter complex is based outside the town of eMalahleni, in the Mpumalanga Province of South Africa. Transalloys was commissioned in the mid- 1960s as a high- and low-carbon ferrochromium plant based on the Perrin process. In 1967 the plant was converted to SiMn production because of constraints in the ferrochrome market (Basson, Curr, and Gericke, 2007; Bezemer, 1995). Today, the installed production capacity is 180 000 t of SiMn annually. Plant operations consists of five SAFs (see ratings in Table I), operating 24 hours a day, 365 days a year (including maintenance), involving 280 permanent employees, with up to 120 contract employees on site at any given time."

Jun 1, 2019

By Gabriel Esterhuizen

Observations of pillar conditions in limestone mines showed that the presence of weak bands in the limestone can result in pillar damage at stresses that are lower than one would otherwise expect. The objective of this National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health study was to investigate the mechanism of failure caused by the presence of weak bands by using a series of numerical models based on realistic physical properties. The effect of the weak bands on pillar strength was also investigated by developing a series of pillar models with different width-to-height ratios and determining their strength by simulating a servo-controlled loading condition. The material properties of the bands and the limestone were varied and their effects on pillar strength were determined. Model results demonstrated failure development similar to the pillars observed in the field. The weak bands were seen to develop tensile stresses in the limestone as they extrude under increasing stress. The limestone fails in tension at a much lower stress than its expected uniaxial compressive strength. The results showed the load bearing capacity of the pillars can be reduced significantly by the presence of multiple thin weak bands. The degree of strength reduction is largely dependent on the compressive strength, the frictional resistance and the thickness of the weak bands. Single weak bands do not affect pillars as severely as multiple bands. However, the model results show that a single thick weak band, which comprises more than about 2 percent of the pillar height, can cause a significant reduction in pillar strength. The weakening effect of the bands become less severe as the pillar width-to-height ratio is increased. Field observation of spalling and failure associated with weak bands in limestone pillars show that the failure mechanism in the models resembles the observed failure. The model results provide insight into the important factors affecting pillar strength in the presence of weak banded materials.

Jan 1, 2007

By C. Swart

Automation technologies are increasingly adopted in different mines world-wide. This paper presents the technical aspects of vehicle automation applications at two Noranda operating mines. Teleoperation of 5 LHDs at Noranda?s Bell Allard mine is used in order to meet aggressive mining requirements under difficult conditions. The equipment is performing under high demand for reliability and performance. In order to further increase performance, automated loading has been commissioned on one of the LHDs and is being tested. Results to date indicate improved performance with respect to an operator through better filling of the bucket, fewer passes at the muck pile and shorter cycles. Noranda?s Brunswick mine is currently commissioning an automated haulage zone where two optically guided trucks transport ore from a remotely operated chute to two ore passes. Expected operational advantages include increased system capacity and enhanced safety and comfort for the operator. Monitoring to date indicates that the trucks can operate reliably under the conditions imposed by mine production.

Jan 1, 2002

By J. A. Hudson, D. L. Millar

Paper presented at a meeting on: Artificial intelligence in the minerals sector, held in Nottingham, UK, 20 April 1993 (original title: Rock engineering system performance monitoring using neural networks.) Synthetic and analytical approaches to objective-based design of rock engineering projects are discussed. Rock masses are considered as complex dynamic systems with components that concurrently interact with each other and their environment. The existence of a rock engineering system canon (i.e. a set of systems governing rules) is proposed. Its possible components are highlighted and an application is demonstrated using a "rock mass automaton" designed to simulate dynamic heat distribution in rock. In the example given, the canon implements the basic result from probability theory applied to the thermodynamics of solids. Rock engineering system performance is reduced to the mapping of the output of a rockmass to varying input (design) options, within the state space of the systems model. The Kohonen Self-Organising Map provides an extremely useful analytical tool to reduce the hyper-dimensionality of rock engineering system behaviour. Further, the hyper-dimensional state vector is mapped "quasiconformally" such that the neural map tends to spatially organise similar input state vectors, facilitating interpretation of rock engineering system behaviour (performance monitoring). Work is reported on the development and validation of the automation as a basis for an internal representation of the rock mass bahaviour. The results are reported of simulations compensating for the uncertainty of the exact mechanisms operating within the rock mass, using additive noise with the input state vector in the training stages of the self-organising map implementation. Initial work on adopting Grossberg's Adaptive Resonance Theory neural network architecture for classification of rock engineering systems behaviour is also presented

Apr 1, 1994

By B. W. Lawrence

Shaft alignment requirements are consistently met using conventional shaft sinking methods. Little attention has been given to achieving similar alignment accuracies using rotary drilled shaft methods. Alignment of these shafts is difficult to control and guarantee. Bare shafts and shafts that use drum hoisting systems can accept some deviation. However, combining drilled shafts with Koepe hoist installations presents new accuracy requirements for drilled shafts. This paper describes the importance of verticality with practical examples, and discusses various methods of measuring verticality and their respective limitations.

Jan 1, 1989

By M. Abzalov

"Control of analytical data quality is usually referred to in the mining industry as Quality Assurance and Quality Control (QAQC), and involves the monitoring of sample quality and quantification of analytical accuracy and precision. QAQC procedures normally involve using sample duplicates and specially prepared standards whose grade is known. Numerous case studies indicate that reliable control of sample precision is achieved by using approximately 5% to 10% of field duplicates and 3% to 5% of pulp duplicates. These duplicate samples should be prepared and analyzed in the primary laboratory.Bias in the analytical results can be identified by inclusion of 3% to 5% of the standard in each sample batch. Several different standards are used, with values spanning the practical range of grades in the actual samples. A blank (a sample in which the concentration of metal of interest is below detection limit) should also be included. Standard samples alone cannot identify biases introduced during sample preparation, and therefore approximately 5% of the duplicate samples (coarse rejects and pulp) should be processed and assayed at another, external, reputable laboratory.This paper discusses techniques used for estimation of errors in precision and accuracy, and overviews diagnostic tools. It is shown that one of the most commonly used methods, the Thompson-Howarth technique, produces consistently lower results than other methods. These results reflect the nature of this method, which relies on the assumption of a normally distributed error, and thus produces biased results when errors have a skewed distribution. This study concurs with the suggestion of Stanley and Lawie (2007: Exploration and Mining Geology, v. 16, p. 265-274) to use the average coefficient of variation (CVAVR(%)) as the universal measure of relative precision error in mine geology applications: Le contrôle de la qualité des données analytiques est habituellement désigné sous l’appellation d’Assurance et Contrôle de la Qualité (ACQ), elle implique le suivi de la qualité des échan¬tillons et la quantification de la reproductibilité et la précision analytiques. Les procédures des pro¬grammes d’ACQ impliquent habituellement l’usage de duplicata et de standards analytiques dont la teneur est connue. Plusieurs études de cas indiquent qu’une bonne fiabilité du contrôle de la précision des échantillons est atteinte par l’usage de 5% à 10% de doublons sur le terrain et de 3% à 5% de doublons de pulpe. Ces duplicata devraient être préparés et analysés au laboratoire principal.Un biais des résultats analytiques peut être identifié par l’inclusion de 3% à 5% d’échantillons standard dans chaque envoi d’échantillons. Plusieurs standards sont utilisés, avec des valeurs couvrant l’étendue des teneurs habituellement rencontrées dans des échantillons réels. Un blanc (un échantillon dans lequel la concentration d’un métal donné est sous la limite de détection) devrait aussi être inclus. L’emploi exclusif d’échantillons standards ne permet pas l’identification de biais résultant de la préparation des échantillons, de telle sorte qu’environ 5% des duplicata (rejets grossiers et pulpes) devrait être traités a un autre laboratoire indépendant et fiable.Cet article passe en revue les techniques utilisées pour évaluer l’erreur liée à la précision et a la reproductibilité, et effectue aussi un survol de divers outils diagnostiques. Il ressort de cet examen qu’une des techniques les plus fréquemment utilisées, la méthode Thompson-Howarth, fournit des estimés systémati¬quement inférieurs à ceux provenant des autres méthodes. Ces résultats sont un reflet de la nature de cette méthode, laquelle assume une distribution normale de l’erreur, biaisant ainsi les résultats lorsque l’erreur présente une distribution asymétrique. La présente étude recommande de privilégier l’usage du coefficient moyen de variation (CVAVR(%)) en tant que mesure universelle de la précision relative de l’erreu"

Jan 1, 2008

By Christopher Mark

Multiple seam interactions are a major ground control hazard in many U.S. underground coal mines. The two most common types are: ? Undermining, where stress concentrations caused by previous full extraction in an overlying seam is the primary concern, and; ? Overmining, where previous full extraction in an underlying seam can result in stress concentrations and rock damage from subsidence. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has completed a major study aimed at helping to identify the location and likely severity of these interactions. In the course of field visits to mines throughout the U.S., more than 300 multiple seam case histories were assembled into the largest data base of multiple seam case histories ever collected. These data were analyzed with the multivariate statistical technique of logistic regression. The study also employed LaM2D to estimate the multiple seam stresses, ALPS and ARMPS to determine pillar stability factors, and the CMRR to measure roof quality. The study resulted in the development of a computer program, called Analysis of Multiple Seam Stability (AMSS), which can help mine planners to evaluate each potential interaction and take steps to reduce the risk of ground control failure. AMSS first evaluates pillar design by calculating the single seam Stability Factor (SFSS) using ALPS or ARMPS. It also automatically generates a LaM2D analysis that provides the additional multiple seam stress so that the final, multiple seam SFMS can be determined. The second part of the AMSS procedure builds upon the statistical findings that overmining is much more difficult than undermining, isolated remnant pillars cause more problems than gob-solid boundaries, and weaker roof significantly increases the risk of multiple seam interactions. AMSS quantifies these effects and predicts the outcome in terms of three levels of risk: GREEN (where a major multiple seam interaction is considered unlikely), YELLOW (where adding a pattern of cable bolts or other equivalent supplemental support could greatly reduce the probability of a major interaction.), or RED (a major interaction should be considered likely, and it may be desirable to avoid the area entirely).

Jan 1, 2007

In the Ngakuru area, zeolite deposits occur in late Quaternary lake sediments and ignimbrites. The deposits are associated with sinters, hydrothermal eruption breccias, and quartz-adularia altered fault breccias: all indicators of a shallow epithermal environment. Several of the deposits are adjacent to epithermal gold prospects. Zeolites are most abundant in lacustrine tuffs of the Ngakuru Formation, a 100-300 m thick sequence of siltstone, tuff, diatomite, sandstone and conglomerate. The formation overlies the Ohakuri Ignimbrite dated at c. 270 Ka, and is unconformably overlain by alluvial sands and gravels which are younger than 20 Ka. Individual zeolite deposits contain 30-80 per cent zeolite over a thickness of up to 45 m in thinly stratified tuff beds. The tuff beds are locally overlain by diatomite. The tuffs are composed mainly of glass shards and pumice clasts, with minor volcanic plagioclase, quartz and biotite crystals. Glass shards in the tuffs are replaced by the silica-rich zeolites mordenite and clinoptilolite. Amorphous silica (opal A), opal-CT, K-feldspar and smectite are also present. The distribution of the Ngakuru Formation is controlled by northeast trending normal faults, which separate it into the Ngakuru and Guthrie grabens. A silicified (quartz-adularia altered) hydrothermal breccia along one of the fault zones suggests that the faults acted as feeders for heated water that caused the deposition of the zeolite minerals. Some of the zeolite deposits are adjacent to sinters and hydrothermal eruption breccias. The location of the sinter about 20 m above one deposit indicates that the zeolites were formed at a depth of 20 to 70 m below the paleosurface. The hydrothermal eruption breccias contain clasts of altered ignimbrite, which contain geochemically anomalous gold and silver values. By analogy with their occurrence in active geothermal systems in the Taupo Volcanic Zone, mordenite and clinoptilolite in the Ngakuru deposits probably formed at temperatures of 60-150oC from near-neutral pH waters as a result of interaction with glass-rich tuff beds. The Ngakuru zeolite deposits are therefore interpreted as shallow hydrothermal alteration zones within larger epithermal gold-bearing systems.

Jan 1, 2002

By Robert B. Fulton

The use of industrial minerals by the chemical industry as raw materials for manufacturing and in processing spans a wide assortment of minerals. This chapter aims to supplement rather than duplicate the commodity chapters. Its objective, to describe the uses of industrial minerals in the manufacture of chemicals, is attained by considering minerals used by the chemical industry in terms of the chemical element required and by giving particular emphasis to market factors. The mineral aspect, which is covered in the commodity chapters, is subordinated and attention is focused on the chemical and market aspects. Condensing this broad subject into a few pages permits treating only the most important elements derived from industrial minerals. The elements derived from petroleum, hydrogen and carbon, which quantitatively dominate as raw materials for the chemical industry, are omitted, as are the metallic elements and the minerals covered in other "use" chapters such as phosphorous, potash, and nitrogen for fertilizers and titanium dioxide for pigments. After eliminating on this basis, our definition leaves six elements of major importance: boron, bromine, chlorine, fluorine, sodium, and sulfur. These elements are treated individually under separate headings. Salt brines have particular importance as raw material sources for the chemical industry as shown in Table 1 "Salt Brine Derivatives" (Anon., 1967), which charts the chemical compounds derived from four types of brines: (1) Owens Lake type brines which are sources of boron and sodium compounds; (2) Midland type brines from which bromine, iodine, and chlorides of calcium, magnesium, potassium, and sodium are derived; (3) Searles Lake type yielding boron, bromine, lithium, magnesium, potassium, and sodium compounds; and (4) Silver Peak type produced mainly for lithium. Table 2 (Jones, 1973) affords an overview of the chief industrial minerals, the chemical products derived from them, and end uses of the products.

Jan 1, 1975