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By Simon W. Houlding

This paper summarizes recent developments in computer modelling and estimation technology. Significant improvements in computational and modelling efficiencies have advanced technical computing to the stage where, for the first time, it can be realistically applied to short-term mine planning and production control. Real-time interactive grade estimation of complex shapes, volumes and grade distributions, based on immediate turn-around of production sample grades, is now possible. An added benefit is the ability to produce complete geostatistical estimates which include confidence limits. These can be incorporated into the decision making and risk assessment processes of production control. Why the need for new technology? What is wrong with the conventional methods which have sufficed for the last thirty years? The response is manyfold. They suffer from inefficient computational processes and conflicts with geostatistical theory. They are responsible for constricting the flow of information between the disciplines involved in the mine production process. Finally, it is illogical to approximate irregular geological and mining volumes with orthogonal sets of rectangular blocks. Geological materials do not occur in block formation; and mining methods which excavate rectangular blocks have yet to be developed. Other computer based technologies have evolved out of the dark ages of rectangular approximations and have successfully dealt with irregular three-dimensional geometries. It is time for computing in the mining industry to follow this example and take full advantage of available technology. To provide the necessary background, consider the basic requirements for successful implementation of technical computing within the mine production process.

Jan 1, 1992

By P. Somasundaran

Electrochemical properties of silicate minerals govern their behavior in processes such as flocculation and enhanced oil recovery that can occur at elevated temperatures. Knowledge of these properties as a function of temperature can be helpful in developing an under- standing of the role of these interfacial properties at non-ambient temperatures. Zeta potential of Sodium Kaolinite and quartz has been determined as a function of pH and temperature in this work. Both systems exhibited markedly different behavior at higher temperatures and also exhibited significant hysteresis. Results are examined in terms of possible dissolution of the minerals and surface reactions at different temperatures.

Jan 1, 1986

By George Innes

The soda ash business in the United States has undergone a sweeping technological change in ihe last 20 years. In a world where synthetics are continuzlly replacing natural products, here we have exactly the opposite, a syntheric chemical being replaced by a natural product. This change is nearly complete in the U.S. and is beginning to take place in Europe and other parts of the world.

Jan 1, 1980

By Huang Kong Xuan, Li Yun Teng

Reviewing the development of resin-in-pulp (RIP) technology for the extraction of gold in the world, especially in South Africa and USSR, and the chemistry of interaction between aurocyanide ions and anion-exchange resins. RIP benchtest and pilot plant investigations show that the resin of the weak-base and strong-base can absorb gold in the cyanide pulp and gold can be eluted from the strong-base resin by electro-elution. The possibility of future application of RIP technology in China fa also briefly discussed.

Jan 1, 1998

By Dennis A. Beiter, Kenneth G. Fields, Richard T. Stoltz

Section 56.5001 Title 30, [Code of Federal Regulations1], establishes requirements for respirable dust exposure in Metal and Nonmetal Mines based on the Threshold Limit Values (TLV's) adopted by the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists. Respirable dust samples collected by Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) inspectors at a sandstone quarry showed certain workers were exposed to excessive concentrations during development of a "coyote tunnel" that was ventilated with a blowing system. Because exhausting face ventilation systems are known to control dust more effectively than blowing face systems, a change was proposed to improve worker respirable dust exposures. This paper describes the evaluation of the proposed exhausting ventilation system in the quarry's "coyote tunnel" and compares the respirable dust exposures with those measured by the MSHA inspectors with the blowing system. Results showed the proposed exhausting ventilation system reduced respirable dust exposures to less than 20 percent of those measured by MSHA inspectors when the blowing system was used.

Jan 1, 1993

By Nora M. Hutt, Kevin A. Morin

There is currently some pessimism over mixing of net-acid-neutralizing (NAN) and net-acid-generating (NAG) rock to obtain indefinite near-neutral seepage from mined-rock piles. This is due in large part to the lack of well- documented, successful cases of blending and layering, and to the knowledge of unsuccessful attempts. Past work often defined a potentially successful mix in terms of the ratio of net-acid-neutralizing rock to net-acid-generating rock. For example, one case study indicated the bulk pile-wide ratio was approximately 3: 1. Since this exceeded a common ratio used in acid-base accounting, no acidic drainage was predicted. However, acidic drainage appeared within two years. A large part of the ambiguity in mixing arises from attempts to predict success based on a ratio. This paper looks in detail at simple discrete-zone mixing, where at least one truckload of NAG rock is placed in a particular location with no further rehandling or dozing. The lack of acidic drainage in this scenario is dependent on the intervening distance between the discrete NAG zones, along flowpaths occupied by NAN rock. Calculations show that the bulk mixing ratio of a mined-rock pile is not an accurate indication of whether near-neutral drainage can be maintained. For example, a pile with a bulk ratio around 300: 1 could still release some acidic drainage. Calculations also show that the minimum separation distance of the NAG zones (L) can be so great, even with typical NAG and NAN rock, that the mixed pile could safely contain only a few percent of NAG rock, which would not be sufficient for many minesites with NAG rock. The comparison to a more elaborate, computer-based statistical model shows that the simple discrete-zone approach will provide a reliable yes-no indication of whether any acidic drainage will leave a pile. However, predictions of whether combined downstream drainages will be acidic depend on numerous site-specific physical and geochemical factors within and below a pile that cannot be modelled in a general way, like the number of flowpaths and the nature of their intersections.

Jan 1, 2000

By Rudolf E. Greuer

Modeling a mine ventilation system is a formidable mathematical problem requiring the solution of twice as many equations as there are airways with half of these being quadratic equations. The addition of a mine fire to the problem adds many more complexities. The U.S. Bureau of Mines and Michigan Technological University attacked this problem in stages. During the 1970's and 80's, a series of computer simulation programs were developed which offered progressively increasing levels of modeling capability and accuracy. The current version of this software, MFIRE 2.0, was released in 1993. This programs provides for full dynamic state mass flow-based modeling of a mine ventilation system, and includes natural ventilation, mechanical ventilation, air reversals and recirculation, methane and fire contaminant spread, and moisture condensation and evaporation in the mass flow and heat exchange calculations. This program is a useful tool for routine ventilation planning and can significantly improve mine safety by enabling detailed quantitative analysis for mine emergency preplanning. This paper reviews the evolution of the MFIRE program from its infancy as a simple digital network simulator replacing analog computers to the present version.

Jan 1, 1994

By J. E. Russell

The purpose of this paper is to describe an independent study which forecasts Texas coal production, specifically for electric power generation. This study, extending to the year 2000, is justified on the following basis. Texas produces and consumes considerably more electric energy than any other state, has consistently high growth rates in the population and industrial sectors, and has large lignite reserves. Also, since recent forecasts have been criticized as overly optimistic, this study is timely when considering the long lead times required in obtaining new power sources. In the study demand for electric energy was assumed to rest on two dominant factors: 1) overall state of the Texas economy as measured by the Texas Gross State Product (TGSP) and 2) Texas population. Demand models were prepared and tested following a study of several options. A final linear regression demand model with time lags for the two variables was chosen on the basis of good correlations. On the supply side, uncertainties such as impact of nuclear sources, gas-fired cogeneration, and ratio of imported to lignite coal exist. These uncertainties were studied with high and low cases for effects on lignite. Finally a simple supply model was chosen. Results of the study indicate that lignite production in Texas will rise from the current (1984) 40 million tons per year (XTPY) to the range of 77 to 124 MTPY and more probably 100 HTPY in the year 2000.

Jan 1, 1984

By Robert E. Goodwin

As man's need for minerals continues to grow and as the known mineral deposits become depleted, it may be expected that these increased demands will result in greater exploration for additional deposits and at continually increasing depths below the earth's surface. As labor and material costs continue to rise, the need for more economic material handling will be emphasized. The quest for heavier payloads, safely moved at faster speeds from deeper mines, will be vigorously pursued. Strenuous efforts are, therefore, being made in the wire rope industry to develop ropes with greater strength-to-weight ratios than presently available while maintaining the dependability and long life being received from the conventional rope manufactured today. For many years, high quality rope wire has been manufactured from rods of selected steel compositions. Carefully-controlled wire drawing combined with proper heat treatment has resulted in high quality wire and wire rope throughout this period. Refinements in the rod produced from specially-selected high carbon steels combined with the latest improvements in wire drawing and heat treatments have made it possible to manufacture higher strength rope wire of uniform composition and structure that is suitable for use in Special High Strength wire rope.

Jan 1, 1970

By Brig M. Moudgil

It was reported earlier that francolite and dolomite from the South Florida deposits cannot be selectively floated using conventional conditioning with sodium oleate as the collector. However, dolomite could be separated from francolite if the minerals were first conditioned at pH 10 followed by reconditioning at a lower pH. An optimum separation was achieved at a reconditioning pH below 4.5. Reconditioning pH and collector concentration were determined to exert a major influence on the selectivity. Flotation, adsorption and transmission infrared spectroscopic results are presented to elucidate the mechanisms underlying the observed selectivity.

Jan 1, 1984

By J. R. Henke

Dewatering wells producing iron-rich water experience rapid declines in yield and drawdown due to the formation of ferric (Fe +) hydroxide deposits in well screen, pump intake and riser pipe. Precipitation is caused by a combination of dewatering-promoted iron oxidation and iron-oxidizing bacteria. Physical and chemical well rehabilitation techniques, as well as alternative well construction and well development techniques designed to minimize well clogging, were evaluated in this study. The addition of acid downhole feed systems to dewatering wells prone to iron encrustation can, in some cases, prolong their operational lives up to 500 percent that of unacidified wells.

Jan 1, 1989

The height of permanent slopes at the Panguna mine of Bougainville Copper Limited will vary from 350 to 950 metres. A few degrees difference in slope angle has a large effect on the ore/waste stripping ratio. Optimum slopes can be achieved if longer batter slopes (exceeding 45m height) are excavated using bulldozers to trim parallel to controlling fracture surfaces. Unnecessary slope flattening by incorporating benches can cost millions of dollars in lost ore. Faults and other major weaknesses, which can result in wedge failure or erodible zones have been treated successfully with shotcrete, rockbolts and cable dowels. To minimize support effort and interference with mine production, early identification and treatment of unstable areas is important.

Jan 1, 1987

By G. P. Larson

We define a specialized mineral market as follows: Specialized markets occur where a low volume of a given mineral is used to convey a large benefit to a specific product. Sales of these value added minerals to small markets generally require a different marketing approach than bulk or commodity markets for traditional minerals. Specialized markets are differentiated by several characteristics as listed in Table 1. [Table 1-Characteristics of Specialized Markets 1. Long-term sample evaluation 2. Small volume markets 3. Highly controlled properties 4. Customized specifications 5. Technical selling effort] Many of the specialized markets require long term evaluations before sales can be made. This can vary greatly depending on the type of industry and ultimate end-use of the final product. In some cases, complete evaluations may take from several weeks to years. Length of sample evaluation has no relationship to size of market. That is, the total market may be quite small or fairly large (e.g. from a few hundred pounds to a few million pounds). Uniformity of value added minerals from lot to lot is an extremely important characteristic for these markets. Variations that are of no consequence to one industry (or application) cannot be tolerated in another. This has led to customized specifications and test procedures for specific markets and applications. Because of the greater uniformity and customized specifications, the need for greater technical selling effort is required. This is particularly true in the initial developmental phases and contacts as well as in maintaining the account after the initial order. A small entrepreneurial organization can be used to advantage to achieve goals of sales and profit to these types of markets. The large commodity or bulk producer's sales and marketing organizations are not ordinarily equipped to give the necessary service or technical assistance to the specialized markets. The organization usually required for this type of marketing is given in Table 2. [Table 2- Specialized Marketing Organization Requirements 1. Flexible approach to technical and marketing problems 2. Versatile background in a broad range of industries 3. Laboratory backup when necessary 4. Marketing expertise 5. Technically competent management] In developing specialized markets, a flexible approach to both technical and marketing problems is necessary in understanding the needs and requirements of the industry and the applications involved. This flexibility is also helpful in adapting existing products to new market areas. Having knowledge of a range of industries as broad as possible can be very helpful. It often happens that a product developed in one area or industry can lead to its application in a different area with excellent results. Laboratory assistance for a wide range of tests and test procedures is an important asset in any development program for specialized markets. Laboratories can also assist in competitive evaluations. Marketing expertise and a management with some degree of technical understanding are necessary in to assign proper cost/ benefit ratios to a proposed new product or application of existing products. This is important since the total market volume can be small and the time required for initial contact to first sale can often be lengthy. Also, management's technical and marketing expertise is required in evaluating all possible options that can be considered viable when an application is presented. Once an organization of this type is in place, it is then possible to determine the needs of the marketplace, including when various minerals might have to be customized to fill those needs. There are generally two methods of marketing, as noted in Table 3. [Table 3- Method of Marketing 1. Product Driven -Develop a product with certain desirable properties and try to find a market to utilize those properties. 2. Market Driven -Know market well enough that when a need arises, it is possible to identify a product that will satisfy the need.] These approaches are not mutually exclusive and can be used at the same time. Marketing a value added mineral generally requires the "market driven" approach. Hence, the importance of a knowledgeable management as outlined above. To determine where needs and opportunities exist, several approaches can be used. Table4 lists some of the methods employed.

Jan 1, 1993

By Richard Dunmore

Most coal seams in the United Kingdom contain firedamp, some of which is released into the ventilating airways as the strata around a working relax. The close sequence of seams in carboniferous strata is usually such that seams in adjacent roof and floor strata are also disturbed and potentially large quantities of firedamp can enter the workings from these sources. Since emission depends on the disturbance rate of the seams, higher coal production rates associated with increased mechanisation in the colliery accentuate the problem. Firedamp concentrations in UK underground workings are subject to statutory regulations1. To enable production to continue uninterrupted and in safety the problem is tackled by ventilation engineers by the provision of adequate ventilation in the airway and by the technique of firedamp drainage. In the UK the latter usually takes the form of cross-measure boreholes in roof strata, and increasingly also in floor strata, drilled from the gateroads, especially from return airways. In this way firedamp emitted from disturbed seams in adjacent strata can be extracted directly to the surface or to some safe position outbye, and the airways of the working district are not contaminated. Despite the use of firedamp drainage, considerable quantities of firedamp enter the ventilation air- stream and the concentration levels may be seen to be related to the coal production activites in the district. Figure 1 shows a typical recording of methane concentration obtained by a BM1 methanometer at a position outbye in a return gate where firedamp drainage was operating. The general rise in level throughout the working week may be seen, together with peaks occurring during production shifts and the gradual decay of emission over the weekend. In view of the fact that ventilation and firedamp drainage contribute a considerable proportion to the operating costs of the colliery, it is essential that the ventilation and firedamp drainage requirements be calculated as accurately as possible at the planning stage of the working. In the past the ventilation engineer has had to rely heavily on experience in neighbouring workings but with the development of mines in previously unworked areas there is clearly a need for a methodical approach to meet the requirements of planning. The work described in this paper represents such an approach and it is hoped that successful development and application of the method of prediction will lead to the widespread adoption of a routine procedure. The current development of a method of prediction of firedamp emission into longwall workings is based on the theoretical treatment of gas emission from coal seams proposed by Airey2 in 1971, which was based on his study of gas emission from broken coal 3 which was published in 1968. In common with other experimental methods of prediction, the method enables a calculation to be made of the total make of gas emitted from all sources of gas in the strata per tonne of mined coal.

Jan 1, 1980

By A. E. Raddatz

The U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines, is investigating methods for recovering tungsten from domestic resources. A calcine-quench-leach (CQL) technique was developed for the extraction of tungsten from the Golconda, Nevada, hot springs ores. The deposit contains disseminated tungsten, which cannot be beneficiated by conventional techniques and must be treated by hydrometallurgical methods. The CQL procedure consists of calcining the ore at 900° C for 3 hr, quenching in a solution containing 1.5 parts of NazCO3 and 1.5 parts of NaOH per part of WO3 in the ore and at a solution- to-ore ratio of 3 to 1, leaching at 200° C and at 250 psig for 3 hr, and filtering and washing the residue. A series of closed-circuit batch tests showed that 92 pct of the tungsten was extracted from a sample containing 2.32 pct WO3. The pregnant solution contained 11 q of W03/1.

Jan 1, 1982

By Leons Kovisars

Two-thirds of the world copper produced in 1979 incurred cash costs between $0.35 and $0.89 per lb, averaging $0.62 per lb. North American costs are higher at $0.48, $0.88, and $0.68 per lb, respectively. Variable cash costs are $0.20, $0.58, and $0.39 per lb for the world; $0.29, $0.63, and $0.46 per lb for North America. Cash costs are relevant for comparing existing operations and evaluating market pricing during periods of excess supply. Analysis of full costs of production (cash costs plus income taxes, profit, and non-cash items) becomes relevant in evaluating the incentive price required to develop new production plants. In mid-1979 this cost (incentive price) was about $1.10 per lb; it is expected to approach $2.00 per lb by 1985.

Jan 1, 1979

By C. A. Born

AMAX Inc. climax's mine-mill complex at Climax, Colorado is best known for its molybdenite production: 50,000 TPY of molybdenite flotation concentrate (95% MoS2) from mill heads containing 0.35% molybdenite. Less recognized are the byproducts that are concentrated from the tails generated in the rougher flotation circuit (see Figure 1). Climax recovers a heavy mineral concentrate by passing the rougher tailings from molybdenite flotation over Humphrey spirals (Figure 2a). This concentrate is floated using xanthate at pH 4 to remove sulfides, principally pyrite. The tails from the pyrite float are then cleaned of quartz, feldspar and light minerals by tabling (Figure 2b). Amine flotation follows at pH 1.5 and 75°C to float monazite (Figure 2c). The present circuit at Climax dries the monazite flotation tailings and utilizes high intensity cross-belt magnetic separation Figure 2d) to generate a high grade wolframite concentrate and a low-grade cassiterite product, both of which are contaminated with the mineral brannerite, (UO, TiO, UO2)TiO3. The uranium specifications have recently become difficult to meet due to the increasing percentage of brannerite reporting in the mill feed. A plant is being built utilizing hot sulfuric acid and sodium chlorate to leach this uranium from the monazite flotation tailings prior to their being fed to the wolframite- cassiterite magnetic separators. This modification is the subject of our paper.

Jan 1, 1975

By Joseph Cervik

The mined coal bed and surrounding strata are both sources of methane which must be control led during mining. During developmental mining, the mined coalbed is the primary methane source; during retreat longwall mining, the primary methane source is the overlying strata. Underground technology is being developed to control both sources. This technology involves drilling long horizontal drainage holes into the mined coal bed and relatively short holes (less than 152 m or 500 feet) into the overlying strata. Because of the large volumes of methane that flow from such drainage holes and the limited ventilation available for in-mine dilution, underground pipelines are used to transport the drained gas to the surface. Large- scale in-mine degasification demonstrations showed reductions in methane flow of up to 70% during developmental mining.

Jan 1, 1981

By A. Galicia, A. Charest

The Marlin deposit is a low sulphidation Au-Ag, epithermal system, with reserves of more than five million ounces gold equivalent. Marlin was discovered in December 1998, after a nine months grassroots exploration program in western Guatemala, focused on volcanic terrains of the Sierra Madre. Before the Marlin discovery, several gold prospects were found along an east-west corridor of approximately 70 kilometers long, associated to regional faulting systems. The deposit is hosted in faults, within Tertiary andesitic rocks and bedded volcano-sediments. Host-rocks are argillized closer to the surface and propyllitized at depth. Mineralization occurs in multi-stage quartz stockworks and breccia veins.

Jan 1, 2004

By R. J. Lee

Asbestos analysis is conceptually simple. The objective, in most environmental analyses, is to determine the number of asbestos fibers per unit area or volume in a sample. The sample may be a consumer product, an ambient air sample, or a water sample. This determination is complicated by several factors: (1) sample collection and preparation, (2) counting techniques, and (3) operational definitions of asbestos in use. Three different definitions have been used in the study of environmental samples and are summarized in Table 1. The analytical procedure and detail required in the analysis vary with the definition of asbestos. Accordingly, this may be the only type of environmental analysis where the definition of a substance dictates the choice of analytical methods, and the rigor demanded of the analysis. Lead, arsenic, or beryllium are sub- stances having a constant definition and the method of analysis chosen depends on the concentration and precision required. However, the meaning of the term asbestos fiber is dependent on the eye of the beholder. Macroscopically, asbestos has certain physical properties that make it highly useful. Rockforming minerals do not display similar characteristics. Now, the question arises as to how three definitions of asbestos came into being. This is a result of two factors: (1) the definition of asbestos on any scale intrinsically involves the morphology or shape of the material, and (2) the advent of the transmission electron microscope permits detection of asbestos fibers and other mineral fragments in a size range where the physical properties of asbestos such as tensile strength, flexibility, or thermal resistance are difficult, if not impossible, to measure. There is a good deal of controversy about which definition is most appropriate for regulatory purposes because of a lack of appropriate health effects data (Cooper, 1978). Most differences of opinion center on the questions surrounding the following: 11 Morphology-Is a 3:l aspect ratio an appropriate medical or physical lower limit for the definition of an asbestos fiber? 2) Length-Are asbestos fibers shorter than some arbitrary length (5 pm) as hazardous as longer fibers? 3) Mineralogy-Is the mineralogical distinction between asbestos and nonasbestos minerals medically significant? While these questions are directly resolvable only with the biological and health effects data, ultimately such data reflects the ability of analytical procedures to fully characterize the materials used in health effects studies on animal models, and to monitor the exposure to particulates with different physical attributes in the workplace or community (Cooper, 1978). The following sections outline the analytical problems involved in distinguishing the asbestos and nonasbestos varieties of the same mineral; the analytical procedures available for identifying asbestos and measuring its concentration in environmental samples; the ability of these methods to distinguish asbestos fibers from nonasbestos particles; and their precision and reproducibility. Finally, we suggest some future directions in terms of definition and procedure that would greatly improve the quality of such analyses. ASBESTOS VS. NONASBESTOS Asbestos that is mined commercially belongs to two mineral families; amphibole and serpentine (Zoltai, 1978, Wylie, and Steel, 1978). The

Jan 1, 1986