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Surface subsidence that results from longwall mining can be large magnitude and can affect significant areas. Conventional methods for subsidence monitoring include leveling, global positioning system (GPS), and photogrammetric surveys. Remote sensing techniques, including aerial LiDAR, terrestrial laser scanning, and satellite-based differential interferometric synthetic aperture radar (DInSAR), are also used to measure deformation associated with subsidence. DInSAR data are different than data from conventional subsidence surveys. Images capture data over large areas (hundreds of kilometers), and each pixel (data point) in an image quantifies the average displacement over an area of square meters. DInSAR data can have fairly high time resolution; imaging periods typically range from weeks to months.

Jan 7, 2020

By Jason Morrison

The Norwegian Lake Tap Method was successfully used to tap into the side of Lake Dorothy 36.5 m (120') below the lake surface. The lake tap allows water to flowinto an access tunnel from the lake lowering the water elevation below its natural out-fall. When the lake reaches a predetermined elevation below the outfall, a 1.5 m (60?) valve in the tunnel will be shut and discharge from Lake Dorothy will stop temporarily allowing construction of a dam located 2.9 km (1.8 miles) downstream at Bart Lake. The lake tap and tunnel were one phase of the $64 million Lake Dorothy Hydroelectric Project, owned and operated by Alaska Electric Light & Power Company (AEL&P), a private utility located in Juneau, AK. The Lake Dorothy portal site and tunnel are located approximately 25.7 km (16 miles) southeast of Juneau, AK, in the remote Tongass National Forest at an elevation of 701 m (2,300') above sea level in the mountains above the Taku Inlet. Thirty degree snow covered mountainsides and limited access by helicopter were just two of the many factors which challenged this unique project. The lake tap and tunnel development consisted of 250 m (820') of horizontal tun-nel, averaging 3.6 m x 3.6 m (12' × 12'), excavated using conventional drill and blast methods in highly competent Granodiorite and Tonalite rock, placement of one 3.9 m (13') long concrete plug, or bulkhead, located at the tunnel midpoint, and one 3 m (10') diameter lake tap into the side of Lake Dorothy. This paper will provide an analysis of the logistical and engineering challenges involved in the development of one of only a handful of lake taps in North America. AEL&P and contractor J. S. Redpath Corporation worked together to complete this critical project phase safely and on schedule, in a location accessible only by helicopter and plagued by constantly changing, harsh weather conditions. A strict schedule had to be maintained to ensure the timely operation of the downstream dam and power plant.

By Paul Russell, M. M. Kimberley, Erick F. Welland, Louis Cope, C. C. Mosher, William M. Shepard, William C. Larson, Graham Closs

Exploration activities in 1980 felt the effects of unstable economic conditions and oscillating metal prices. In the cyclical, boom-or-bust precious metals and uranium markets, precious metals activity flourished and uranium was definitely in a slump. By November last year, the price for vellowcake was down nearly $20 from two years earlier. Many mining and milling operations closed, particularly in Wyoming, New Mexico, and Colorado. Decreasing emphasis on nuclear power continued to impact the market, as did the Three Mile Island accident of 1979. Earlier forecasts estimated that 10 to 12 reactors would be ordered per year by US utilities throughout the 1980s, but current forecasts suggest that it may be 1983 or 1984, or even later, before any new US plants are ordered, according to Thomas A. Boyden, vice president of Nuclear Exchange Corp. "Without those new plants, the consumption loss to industry is 4 to 5 million pounds (1.8-2.3 kt) of uranium per year. The cumulative loss to the industry is currently estimated at 25 to 30 million pounds (11.3-13.6 kt)," Boyden said in a May 1980 presenta¬tion. Despite the plunging market, there were a few notable uranium explora¬tion programs: •Exxon expanded uranium exploration in New Mexico, where the company reportedly took preliminary steps toward acquiring mineral rights to a 22-km2 prospect, 19 km south of Santa Fe. • Mountain States Resources began the second phase of an exploratory drilling program on its Sinbad/ Solo prospect in Utah. • Also in Utah, Cotter Corp. drilled its first exploratory hole in the Dirty Devil River district. Exploration for precious metals in 1980, however, appeared to tend toward the opposite extreme. High prices sparked near feverish searches in Alaska, California, Colorado, and Nevada. Numerous mines abandoned years ago were revived with some signs of success. Significant gold finds were reported in California and Nevada: • Homestake Mining Co. announced a gold discovery in California estimated to contain over 5 Mt with an average grade of about 5.8 g/t. Because the deposit consists of finely disseminated particles not visible to the eye, many speculate that prospectors bypassed the area during the 1849 California gold rush. • Newmont Mining Corp. discovered two gold ore bodies-Maggie Creek and Gold Quarry. Maggie Creek reportedly contains an estimated 13.7 t of gold in 4.3 Mt of ore, and Gold Quarry contains about 31.1 t of gold in 9 Mt of low grade ore and 2.3 Mt of higher grade ore. Highlights of this year's exploration review include articles on the modest growth recorded in geophysical activity, technical developments in exploration geochemistry, the variety of new instruments being tested or made available for exploration, and a state-by-state exploration review for the year.

Jan 5, 1981

By Dafydd Chandler, Milissa Hirst, Charles Hurst, Gary Snyder, Leszek Glodkowski

The Delaware County Regional Water Quality Control Authority (DELCORA) will be adding tunnel infrastructure to its wastewater conveyance system. This program involves the construction of a conveyance/storage tunnel and related facilities. The proposed 12- foot to 14-foot (±) finished diameter, TBM mined deep rock tunnel spans over 8.5 miles and lies approximately 80 ft-120 ft below the surface. The system is connected to the surface by at least five vertical online shafts and one offline shaft with associated 800ft long adit. This paper provides project details including data on the geologic conditions in which the tunnel will be constructed.

Dec 1, 2022

By M. Tanaji

Over the last many decades, a significant amount of research has gone into the domain of slurry transport. However, design engineers still face many challenges with respect to prediction of pressure drop, critical velocity and other design parameters as a function of Solids % and Particle Size Distribution (PSD). The industry requirement is to transfer the slurry at the maximum concentration as possible (above 30% (volume %)) to make slurry transport more economically viable and to reduce water consumption. To facilitate the design and scale-up of slurry transport in pipelines and in process plants, there is a need for a correlation that can predict slurry pressure drops over a wide range of operating conditions and physical properties of different slurries. The objective of this study is to overcome the limited range of applicability and validity of existing correlations and to develop a generalized but more rigorous correlation applicable to a wider range of slurry sys-tems. The existing Wasp et al. (1977) method is based on multi-phase flow modeling approach. This study attempts to modify this approach by considering material-specific values of Durand?s equation co-efficient and by defining flow regimes based on particle Reynolds number. When compared with experimental data, the modified Wasp method proposed in this study predicts the pressure drop for slurry flows more accurately than other available correlations. Also, the pro-posed method requires minimal test/experimental data for a particular slurry system and can be extended over different input conditions. An iterative computer algorithm is developed to calculate the criti-cal settling velocity and pressure drop in a pipe as a function of Solids % and PSD. The solution method can easily be implemented in de-signing slurry pipes, design validation, and studying the different slurry transport scenarios. The modified method can also be extended to accurately predict pressure drops in dynamic pressure flow networks used in commercial process simulators.

Feb 23, 2014

By B. R. Arvidson

Sharper separation and improved control of the top size increases the fine particle product yield. As the milling circuit recycle stream is reduced, the overall capacity is increased. In some cases, a doubling of throughput is realized, although 25 to 30% increase is more typical. Alternatively, the energy demand may be reduced, although the best economic improvement results from higher capacity. A comparison with a high-pressure roller mill circuit shows that an optimized ball mill circuit retrofitted with the new air classifier has lower energy consumption. The new air classifier features low energy demand and substantially lower maintenance compared to similar equipment. Design and operation of this recently patented classifier are discussed. Several industrial installations will be described.

Jan 1, 1999

By W. J. Miles

Many years ago, a relationship was established between dust inhalation and pneumoconiosis. Since then, various government agencies have regulated crystalline and amorphous forms of silica material in the workplace. In 1987, the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) classified crystalline silica as a probable carcinogen. With this listing, crystalline silica became a regulated substance under the Hazard Communication Standard. The minerals and chemicals industries have responded in various ways. They have: • developed worker and user training programs and literature; • labeled products with appropriate warnings; • continued to implement dust reduction programs; and • developed meaningful epidemiological studies of workers. • begun development of reliable analytical methods for measuring crystalline silica at the 0.1 % threshold level; Background Silicosis historically has been the major health hazard resulting from exposure to crystalline silica. Silicosis is the scarring of the lung from excessive exposure to crystalline silica. It has been recognized as an occupational disease for more than 2000 years, since early Greek physicians noted the respiratory problems of miners, stonecutters, and quarrymen who were exposed to excessive quantities of mineral dust. During the industrial revolution, the incidence of the disease was greatly increased by the use of machinery that increased dust levels. Subsequently, the need for dust control was recognized and measures were instituted. Silicosis is characterized by progressive breathlessness on exertion and develops over the course of years. Xray images of the lungs show

Jan 1, 1990

By A. W. Storm

Vertical shaft furnace design and operation have their roots deep in antiquity. There is substantial evidence to indicate that iron was reduced from its oxides to serve mankind's needs long before recorded civilization - - actually prior to 3500 B .C. For at least 5500 years man has been matching wits with Nature to find better methods of extracting this most common, yet essential, metal from her, grasp. And, during nearly all of this period, the vertical shaft furnace has played a principle role in this dramatic struggle.

Jan 1, 1962

By S. I. Freedman

Coal-oil mixture (COM) combustion technology is regarded by the Department of Energy as near term, and potentially applicable to existing utility and industrial steam generators and for injection into blast furnaces. From work done previously, it has been established that COM can be burned in existing boilers, into blast furnaces. Therefore, the issues being addressed by the current DOE program are: (1) determination of best available technology to achieve environmentally-acceptable long-term reliable operation and (2) determination of applications for which COM can be utilized economically. Some of the technological options have begun to be determined by projects already under way. However, many projects are still in the early stages of development.

Jan 1, 1978

By A. Tordoir, S. S. Kanchibotla, W. Rogers, E. Engmann, B. Bisiaux, S. Ako

Blast-induced rock mass displacement can have a significant impact on ore loss and dilution. The mischaracterization of the grade boundaries both prior to, as well as a result of, blasting can lead to significant financial losses due to ore loss and dilution. Ore dilution occurs when waste material is miscategorized as ore and sent for processing or stockpiling, diluting the run-of-mine head grade and recovery. Ore loss takes place when valuable mineral is miscategorized as waste and sent to the waste dumps, thus never being processed and recovered. Extensive research has been conducted at the University of Queensland over the last fifteen years to understand the impact of blast movement on ore loss and dilution. Recent outcomes of this research have led to the development of innovative tools and techniques to measure and model blast movement. These techniques have been implemented at the Ahafo gold mine in Ghana to understand blast movement dynamics and to implement solutions to reduce blast-induced ore loss and dilution. These solutions are validated through controlled trials and have been incorporated into site standard operating procedures.

Jan 1, 2012

By Robert D. Harris

In 1958, the coal industry, through Bituminous Coal Research, Inc., and the electric utility industry, through the Edison Electric Institute and the Association of Edison Illuminating Companies, initiated a joint program to study coal pyrite and its removal as a means of lowering the sulfur content of steam coals. It was assumed that significant amounts of pyrite often remained in washed steam coal not because available systems for coal cleaning were inadequate, but because the pyrite was small and widely disseminated, During the first two years, samples of coal were examined petrographically to determine the size, association, and mode of occurrence of the pyrite in the raw coal and in the products of laboratory separation, Samples of coal were also pulverized in different equipment to determine how effectively pyrite was released by pulverization and if the mode of pulverization affected the liberation of pyrite. From these studies, the following tentative conclusions were made (1 ): 1. Much of the coal pyrite is within a 250-70 micron size range, and therefore is too small to be removed by conventional coal cleaning, but relatively large when compared to the size of coal as pulverized for combustion in large boilers. 2. The degree of pyrite liberation is mainly determined by the size of the product and not by the type of crusher. 3. For improved pyrite removal, the coal should be cleaned during or after pulverization at the power station.

Jan 1, 1965

By Bill Elverman

Randy and Kenny Robison have visited every coal mine that would let them in the door, to survey the best mining practices. The brothers have spent nearly their entire lives working in coal operations. The Robison’s started out on lube and grease trucks and worked their way up to respected industry leaders in Alabama. The Robisons have owned MS&R since 1989. Since then, they have created a niche for themselves in providing coal for Alabama’s metallurgical coal market. A great deal of the knowledge the Robisons have amassed throughout the years has come from observing — taking note of what works and what does not. In early spring 2004, they commissioned a Komatsu America PC3000 Super Shovel. Outfitted with a backhoe attachment and a 16-m3 (21-cu yd) bucket, MS&R’s PC3000 is currently one of the largest mining excavators working in Alabama.

Jan 1, 2005

By E. M. Spokes

A.B. Rushton The work and resulting publications of the Committee on Underground Coal Mine Safety and The President's Commission on Coal were appropriate at the time of publication. The statistics cited in the publications appeared to be valid, and the actions proposed by the committee had merit. Although the actions proposed to achieve further improvements in safety may have been worthy of repeating, to associate statistics (Table 1) that are seven to eight years old with company names is bad. Statistics are readily available from the Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) and are usually within three months of being up to date. A review of the most recent Coal Controlling Co. Report will reveal significant changes in the rankings. The more recent statistics should have been cited, or at least compared with those used in the article. Westmoreland Coal Co. is listed as having a 21.1 disabling injury rate for the period (1/78-12/80). The disabling injury rate for the Company for the year ending 1985 was 7.4 for the underground mines and 6.25 for the total facilities. Through March 1986, the disabling rate for the underground mines was 2.86. The management and employees of Westmoreland Coal Co. are committed to safety. The improvements achieved over the past five years attest to that commitment. We are justifiably proud of the achievement and dislike being misrepresented as in the April 1986 article. Reply by E.M. Spokes I regret that the lapse of time since the original work gives a picture of safety practice that is no longer true today. That Westmoreland has reduced its disabling injury rate by 65% to 7.4 in 1985 is most commendable, and I congratulate you for this accomplishment. It is typical of the progress sought by the National Academy of Science and National Research Council when they funded the original study and published "Toward Safer Underground Coal Mines" in 1982. If a significant number of companies do as well as Westmoreland, the report will have served its purpose. Since the paper was primarily a condensation of the original report, it would not have been appropriate to seek access to later statistics. The purpose in seeking its publication at the time of presentation was to reach those who might have missed the original report. The fact that publication was delayed has not voided that purpose and may have reminded some who were aware of the original that its recommendations still apply to improvement of underground coal mine safety.

Jan 6, 1986

By Henning R. Norbom

Lime has been produced for many centuries. The simple pot kiln was one of the first devices used in this process. It was constructed of stone often on the side of a hill to reduce construction efforts and provide easy access to the top for feeding of limestone. It was fired from below with wood and coal. The pot kiln was very small and operated on the batch principle. The kiln being cooled between each batch, the fuel consumption was horrendous. The lime quality was poor with perhaps only one half of a batch being lime of suitable quality. Of the remaining half one part would be over burned and another part underburned. For centuries the lime burning technique was improved at a barely recognizable rate. One of the first major steps forward was the introduction of the continuous process vertical lime kiln. Although at first crudely constructed, the kiln had a refractory lining. It was charged with alternate layers of limestone and solid fuel usually in the form of coke. Continuous mode of operation, larger unit size and better heat distribution resulted in greatly improved fuel economy. However, quality of lime produced still left much to be desired. One problem was contamination by ashes from solid fuel.

Jan 1, 1978

Mine Terex articulated dump trucks are working on a large restoration project of an abandoned open cast coal site in Blacklaw, central Scotland. The project is part of the construction of a 42-turbine wind farm complex. During the scheduled 18-month duration of the project, three 28-t(31-st) Generation 7 TA30 dump trucks and the six 36.5-t (40-st) TA40articulated trucks are estimated to move about 1Mm3 (1.3 million cu yd)of material. The trucks are working12-hour shifts, 5.5days a week.

Jan 1, 2005

By L. Wilfley, G. A. Calboreanu

"Wear resistant 25% Cr hard cast iron is a heterogeneous material containing 1,600 HV hard chromium carbides embedded into martensitic matrix. It is the most used cast alloy in wear operations of mining industry, chemical industry, fracking, etc. During the last decade the hard iron manufacturers increased wear resistance in the following ways: • Reduce / eliminate harmful retained austenite and chromium + carbon depleted areas especially within eutectic carbide cells. In Max5A the improved 25% Cr alloy brittle carbide eutectic cells are removed which increases toughness. • Delay delamination between chromium carbides and matrix particularly during sliding abrasion wear. Delamination commences at the weakest chromium carbide – matrix contact lines exposing chromium carbide to localized bending stresses which gradually chip carbides away. Once the chromium carbide base is removed accelerated wear degradation occurs. • Evenly randomize and avoid discontinuities in the chromium carbide network. When chromium carbides are perpendicularly positioned to the wear surface wear rate is minimized. On the contrary the highest wear rate takes place when 3D oriented chromium carbides are parallel with the wear surface. In this case chromium carbides cover top network discontinuities being just matrix supported which leads to rapid carbide cracking. The new hard iron discussed in this paper fulfils and exceeds the above requirements increasing the casting service life around 250% in various wear operations. Physical and mechanical properties of Max5A are compared with well manufactured Industry Standard 25% Cr hard iron. The paper presents practical accomplishments obtained in the USA, South America and India. INTRODUCTION The chemical composition of Max5A and Industry Standard 25% Cr are identical like specified by ASTM A532 Class III Type A requesting C = 2.0-3.3% and Cr = 23.0-30.0%. Manganese, silicon, nickel, molybdenum and copper contents are limited by maximum accepted quantities.[1] According to published data the eutectic chromium carbides chemical composition of 25% Cr hard iron is Cr = 54% and C = 8% which indicates strong depletion of chromium and carbon along chromium carbide - matrix interfaces. [2] The optimized Max5A microstructure has minimized retained austenite, is devoid of harmful carbide eutectic cells and has the most advantageous chromium carbide and secondary chromium carbide morphology. This favorable microstructure increases wear resistance, mechanical properties and corrosion resistance. The paper compares the Max5A microscopic features and mechanical – physical properties with similar properties of high quality Industry Standard 25% Cr."

Jan 1, 2017

By C. K. Man

Coal dust explosions in underground coal mines are prevented by generous application of rock dust (usually limestone). If an explosion should occur, the rock dust disperses, mixes with the coal dust and prevents flame propagation by acting as a thermal inhibitor or heat sink. To investigate this process in more detail, a number of explosion experiments using various coal dust and limestone rock dust mixes have been carried out at the Lake Lynn Experimental Mine (LLEM). These were conducted in a single entry of about 1600 ft (488m) in length and initiated with a methane gas explosion. A consistent set of post-explosion floor dust samples were taken along the entry after each test. These dust samples have been analyzed in the laboratory using thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and solubility to determine how the limestone rock dust behaved during the coal dust / rock dust explosions. The preliminary results are reported in this paper and indicate that the chemistry of limestone plays an important role in its capacity to inhibit coal dust explosions. The results also show that it may be possible to estimate the intensity of the explosion using these conventional methods of analysis. Disclaimer: The findings and conclusions in this report have not been formally disseminated by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health and should not be construed to represent any agency determination or policy.

Jan 1, 2009

By Charles L. Allie

Since Reserve Mining Co. began commercial operations at Silver Bay, MN, some 25 years ago, major improvements in taconite processing technology have become available. In addition, significant new government standards have been imposed on industrial operations. By implementing a $370-million modernization program, Reserve was able to accomplish two major company objectives: the quality of concentrates produced from the Peter Mitchell mine has improved, and the operation meets both present and foreseeable environmental standards. Process modifications at Reserve were designed to: •Reduce the pellet silica content from 9% to 5%; •Increase the pellet iron content from 62.5% to 65.8%; •Implement a tailings disposal system utilizing "best available technology" water quality controls; and •Reduce air emissions by installing "best available technology" air emission controls. By adding dry cobbing, fine screening, and flotation to the concentrating process, pellet silica content has been reduced; the process reclaims and reuses all process waters; all tailings are stored in a zero discharge tailings basin; and all air emission standards are being met. Initial Beneficiation at Silver Bay Reserve's Peter Mitchell mine at Babbitt, MN, is on the eastern end of the Biwabik iron formation. The open-pit mine is approximately 16 km long, 0.8 km wide, and presently has a maximum depth of about 50 m. Principal constituents of the ore body are magnetite, quartz, and iron-magnesium silicates. The company's large commercial plant began operating at Silver Bay, 75 rail km from the mine, in 1955. Facilities have historically had the capacity to process 31.5 Mt/a of taconite, containing an average 24% magnetic iron, into 11 Mt/a of iron ore pellets. Reserve's initial beneficiation process-which existed up to early 1979-consisted of two crushing stages at the Babbitt mine site, two additional crushing and screening stages at Silver Bay, grinding in a conventional rod-ball¬regrind mill circuit, size classification with cyclones, and concentration with magnetic and hydraulic separators. Concentrate produced by that circuit assayed 65% iron and 8.5% silica, with a screen analysis of 94% -44 µm, and a surface area of 9300 cm2/cm3. Pellets produced from this concentrate assayed 62.5% iron and 9% silica (dry basis). Construction began in 1977 to modify Reserve's operation. Process modifications were designed from pilot scale operations that had been operated and researched by Reserve for more than 10 years. There were two design restraints imposed on the process: economic constraints that Reserve continue to use much of the existing processes and structures in the new operation; and a substantial number of government-imposed permit constraints. In effect, the tailings process was designed first and then a concentrating process was developed that would "fit" the tailings disposal system. Operation of the modified process began in June 1980. Crushing Remains Unchanged No changes in process flow were made at either the Babbitt mine and crushing plant or at the Silver Bay fine crusher. Gyratory crushers reduce run-of-mine taconite to -90 mm-diam at the mine. Taconite is then transported to Silver Bay by intra-plant railroad. There are 10 fine crushing lines. Each consists of a double deck screen, followed by a heavy duty short head crusher, a second double deck screen, and second short head crusher. All screen undersize material bypasses the crushing lines, resulting in an open circuit crushing process. Fine crusher product is approximately 98% - 20 mm, 80% -12 mm, and 50% -10 mm in diameter. Each fine crusher line processes about 400 t/h of crude taconite. Cobbing Provides Aggregate for Tailings Dams The first major process change was the addition of dry cobbing, a dry magnetic separation step between the fine crusher and concentrator. Dry cobbing serves two major purposes in the new process. Its principal function is to provide large volumes of dry coarse aggregate for use in construction of tailings dams. This process rejects about 20% of the fine crusher product as tailings with a size analysis of 98% -20 mm and 50% - 10 mm. These tailings are free draining and have high frictional shear strengths-two key requirements for dam building aggregates. Fine crusher product is conveyed to a new dry cobbing building. Here crushed ore is discharged into one of two 30-minute capacity surge bins. Crushed ore is withdrawn by 12 constant speed conveyor belts; each discharges 500 t of crushed taconite into a dry cobbing machine. Each machine consists of a 3-m-long riffle splitter and two vari-

Jan 12, 1980

By Graham A. Davis

?The ideas of economists and political philosophers, both when they are right and when they are wrong, are more powerful than is commonly understood. Indeed, the world is ruled by little else. Practical men, who believe themselves to be quite exempt from any intellectual influences, are usually the slaves of some defunct economist. Madmen in authority, who hear voices in the air, are distilling their frenzy from some academic scribbler of a few years back. I am sure that the power of vested interests is vastly exaggerated compared with the gradual encroachment of ideas. . . . But, soon or late, it is ideas, not vested interests, which are dangerous for good or evil.? John Maynard Keynes The General Theory (1936) Policy analysts, economists and others have tradition-ally considered mining and mineral wealth a boon, providing rich countries with the resources needed to sustain their modern industrial economies while helping poorer countries generate the foreign exchange, tax revenues and other assets necessary for economic growth and development. Nevertheless, this conventional view has always had its critics.

Jan 1, 2008

By T. Lilley

The use of membranes in wastewater systems has increased rapidly in recent years. Microporous or semi-permeable barriers augment conventional chemical or biological processes to meet stringent treatment targets. These developments enable elegant solutions to wastewater discharge challenges and extend the scope of water recycle redressing the overall water balance and operational economics Wastewater treatment processes are discussed by reference to the spectrum of waterborne contaminants and the respective membrane separation capabilities. The role chemical pre-treatment to enable physical separation of metals with micro-filtration (MF) is described and how integration of MF with reverse osmosis (RO) is used to control a broader range of dissolved contaminants Membrane configurations are considered apropos function, operational economics and sustainability. These features are exemplified with case studies. Firstly, MF alone following chemical precipitation for the removal of heavy metals, then MF onto two stages RO of different configurations for TDS reduction and waste volume minimisation and finally an open channel RO alone for the reduction of inorganic COD from a leach stream.

Feb 27, 2013