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By William L. Crentz

Pike County in the easternmost portion of Kentucky is one of the major coal-producing areas in the eastern Kentucky coal field. The county contains numerous coal beds, many of which are too thin to support mining. The commercially important beds are usually 4 feet or more thick, but selective mining at some places calls for removal of a much thinner section of the bed. The variation in quality of the beds from place to place and the large number of coal beds make correlation uncertain. Samples were collected from 14 different coal beds, of which the Elkhorn group is by far the most important. In addition to the Upper Elkhorn No. 3, Upper Elkhorn No. 2, Upper Elkhorn No. 1, and Lower Elkhorn beds that comprise the Elkhorn group, the Winifrede, Williamson, and Bingham beds constitute the principal coal deposits in Pike County.

Jan 1, 1952

By B. D. Nash

The Bureau of Mines continued its research into the recovery of fluorine by the phosphoric acid acidulation defluorination of phosphate rock concentrates. A small process development unit with a capacity of about 10 kilo-grams of charge per hour was operated, and concentrates from both Idaho and Florida were processed. Over 80 percent of the fluorine was evolved and recovered as a dilute fluosilicic acid solution. Phosphate extraction from the concentrates always exceeded 98 percent. The fluorine was converted to a synthetic fluorspar product (3CaFa?SiOa) suitable for use as a slag conditioner in electric furnace steelmaking operations.

Jan 1, 1977

By R. A. Cattell

Progress of Bureau of Mines research related to oil and gas during the past fiscal year has been marked by the publication of more than 40 reports on the various phases of the work . These include papers dealing with the production of oil and gas , transportation of gas , chemistry and refining of petroleum , thermodynamic properties of hydrocarbons , and the processing and utiliza- tion of helium . As an additional service to Pennsylvania oil operators , a new suboffice was opened in Bradford , Pa . , during the year . With this addition , the work of the Petroleum and Natural Gas Branch of the Bureau of Mines is now conducted in two large stations , the Petroleum Experiment Station , Bartlesville , Okla . , and the Petroleum and Oil Shale Experiment Station , Laramie , Wyo . , and three field offices and laboratories at San Francisco , Calif . , Dallas , Tex . , and Franklin, Pa., and two suboffices, Wichita Falls, Tex., and the newly opened suboffice at Bradford, Pa. In addition, this Branch operates large-scale helium-production plants in Texas, Kansas, and New Mexico, and maintains ex- tensive helium-bearing gas reserves in Texas and New Mexico. All helium opera- tions are supervised from headquarters at Amarillo, Tex. A small headquarters staff is in Washington, D. C. A backward glance at the road traveled during the past several years by the Petroleum and Natural Gas Eranch of the Bureau of Mines brings out a general background for the events of the fiscal year 1949. Throughout the fiscal year 1945, the activities of the Branch were still mainly concerned with such war activities as making special field studies for the Petroleum Adminis- tration for War, finding ways of increasing rates of production, and supplying data pertaining to the manufacture of aviation and jet-propulsion fuels. A period of adjustment came in 1946, characterized by a turning from war to peace procedures and efforts to give wide distribution to technical facts ob tained in wartime research; also, there came a realization that the demands of war had broadened the horizons of research. This was emphasized in 1947, when a peacetime program was restored, based upon the long view of the Bureau's place as a research agency in oil and gas. Close attention was given to tech- nical detail in 1948, and emphasis was placed on maintaining a balance between the industrial need for technical knowledge and Governmental-research possi- bilities in the fields of (1) withdrawal of petroleum from natural deposits, (2) utilization of petroleum and its products, and (3) commercial utilization of helium. Studies of petroleum production and utilization and helium production and utilization are the normal functions of the Branch. These functions (sometimes expressed in different words) have been the mainstay of this organization since initiation of the work. The details of approach vary with changing conditions, but, fundamentally, the functions have been the same in both peace and war. The work of the past fiscal year has emphasized the advantages that accrue when Government and industry join in a wise use of technical and scientific knowledge gained through research. Outstanding evidence of the beneficial results of cooperative effort by the Bureau of Mines and various organizations is found in the following typical examples, the details of which are discussed in the body of this report. Working in close cooperation with operators along the Gulf Coast, the Natural Gasoline Association of America, and the National Association of Cor- rosion Engineers, the Bureau found, through field testing, that corrosion protection by means of chromates in high-pressure gas-condensate wells costs less than $1 per million cubic feet of gas produced. Laboratory experiments to measure the corrosion effects of carbonic and propionic acids on various steels and alloy steels gave data that will serve as guides in the selection of new. materials for the construction of well equipment to be tested by industry under actual service conditions.

Feb 1, 1950

By Jr. Herty

Manufacturers and consumers of steel have come to realize during the past few years that cleanliness is of great importance in steels which must meet rigid specifications for various physical properties. Of equal importance is the consistent production of steel which is uniform in these properties. For maximum utility, steels should be uniform not only from heat to heat, but also from ingot to ingot and within each ingot. In the manufacture of killed steels such as the higher carbon forging grades, uniformity as indicated by the usual chemical analysis is easy to obtain, provided that a normal top discard is taken, as is always the case in steels poured with hot-top practice. No such uniformity, however, holds true for the nonmetallic matter, which consists for the most part of the products of deoxidation of the steel. For a large tonnage of steels which go into articles manufactured by deep-drawing processes, killed steel has never been successfully applied because with the present deoxidation practice, low-carbon killed steel is almost invariably extremely dirty. To obtain the desired qualities for deep drawing, the steel is rimmed, - that is to say, deoxidized with manganese and perhaps a small amount of aluminum, - the resultant product being of high purity in the skin of the ingot, but very badly segregated at the center of the ingot, particularly in the upper-central section. This segregation necessitates a very heavy top discard, and one of the major segregates is carbon which renders the steel too hard to draw properly. If clean, low-carbon killed steel could be made successfully, much better ingot yields would be obtained than by the present rimming steel practice. Furthermore, banded structures and outside and inside seams, which are undoubtedly due in a large measure to blowholes in the ingot, are defects which are very difficult to control in rimmed steel.

Jan 1, 1931

By Constantine C. Popoff

This report reviews and analyzes, by a simple analytical and logical reasoning, the conventional methods of reserve computations of mineral deposits described in various domestic and foreign publications. It brings together, formulates, and evaluates the principles underlying interpretation of exploration data; and ties such principles to the proposed classification of methods. The material is discussed in sufficient detail to allow general application.

Jan 1, 1966

By Harry D. Jumper

This paper describing the methods of ruining a sand, gravel, and bowlder deposit 20 miles east of Los Angeles, and the classification and preparation of these materials for market, is one of a series being prepared for and published by the United States Bureau of Mines on methods and cost of mining sand and gravel. These papers are designed to disseminate technical information regarding, the methods used. The cost tabulations represent operating expenditures only and not total costs. It is recognized that publication of total costs might in many instances cause embarrassment to individual operators as well as to the industry as a whole. On the other hand, operating costs are essential to the technical discussion anti study of the methods employed. The attention of the reader is specifically called to this differentiation in order that no misunderstanding of the scope of the cost tabulations stall ensue. The description contained herein is typical of this industry in Southern California. ACKNOWLEDGMENT The author acknowledges tine assistance of L. L. Rogers, vice-president and manager of production and distribution for the Consolidated Rock Products Co., in the preparation of this paper.

Jan 1, 1933

By D. W. Blaylock

I. The Lower Kittaning bed is the most important bed in Clarion County from the standpoint of present production, but the Clarion bed has the largest recoverable reserve. 2. Known measured and indicated reserves in all beds, based on a minim thickness of 14 inches and 1,800 short tons per acre-foot of coal in place, are estimated at 1,210 million short tons as of January 1, 1952. Of this total, 790 million short tons is in beds 28 inches and mare thick. Areas in some beds were omitted from the estimate because available data relative to the bed characteristics are too wager for ding an estimate that conforms with the definitions of measured and indicated coal adopted for this study. Should future drilling or development prove reserves in these areas, they should be added to the total estimated reserves.

Jan 1, 1956

By C. H. Herty

Manufacturers and consumers of steel have come to realize during the past few years that cleanliness is of great importance in steels which must meet rigid specifications for various physical properties. Of equal importance is the consistent production of steel which is uniform in these properties. For maximum utility, steels should be uniform not only from heat to heat, but also from ingot to ingot and within each ingot. In the manufacture of killed steels such as the higher carbon forging grades, uniformity as indicated by the usual chemical analysis is easy to obtain, provided that a normal top discard is taken, as is al¬ways the case in steels poured with hot-top practice. No such uniformity, however, holds true for the nonmetallic matter, which consists for the most part of the products of deoxidation of the steel. For a large tonnage of steels which go into articles manufactured by deep-drawing processes, killed steel has never been successfully applied because with the present deoxida¬tion practice, low-carbon killed steel is almost invariably extremely dirty. To obtain the desired qualities for deep drawing, the steel is rimmed, - that is to say, deoxidized with manganese and perhaps a small amount of aluminum, - the resultant product being of high purity in the skin of the ingot, but very badly segregated at the center of the ingot, particularly in the upper-central section. This segregation necessitates a very heavy top discard, and one of the major segregates is carbon which renders the steel too hard to draw properly. If clean, low-carbon killed steel could be made successfully, much better ingot yields would be obtained than by the present rimming steel practice. Furthermore, banded structures and outside and inside seams, which are undoubtedly due in a large measure to blowholes in the ingot, are defects which are very difficult to control in rimmed steel. These defects would be minimized by clean killed steel.

Jan 1, 1931

By L. Mallett

The changing demographics of the mining industry make successful passing of knowledge and skills to the next generation critical. Training methods and technologies are being developed to meet this need. Twenty years ago classroom training was largely a one-way transfer of knowledge through instructor lectures. In contrast, instructors today can use virtual reality technologies to guide trainees as they fully participate in learning experiences. Trainees can interact with the virtual work environment, co-workers, and equipment without being exposed to workplace hazards. The speed of advancement in mine safety, health, and production training shows no sign of slowing in the next 20 years. Researchers at the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health have studied and participated in the evolution of miner training. A look at training materials they have created in the past and those they are currently developing reveals changes in methods and technologies over time and also key characteristics which have remained constant. Possibilities for the future can he discussed in the framework of an implementation of virtual reality in new miner training sessions. The example computer-based training package teaches new miners to read mine maps and provides opportunity to practice navigation skills in a virtual mine. With this 'serious game', trainees experience the look and feel of moving through an underground coal mine while in the safety of their classroom. During field-testing in 2007, trainees and instructors responded very favourably to this new way of learning. The software was usable by mine trainers with even limited computer expertise and could be installed on the affordable computers they were using for their more traditional slide presentations. The Underground Coal Mine Map Reading Training's foundation on past successful development strategies and its acceptance by today's instructors and trainees provide valuable lessons for developing training materials, strategies, and technologies for mining's future.

Jan 1, 2009

By J. A. Organiscak

This paper examines methods for limiting occupational silica exposures for roof bolting personnel in underground coal mining. A canopy air curtain and an air tube were evaluated as means to provide filtered air over the breathing zone of these personnel. Laboratory testing showed that dust reductions beneath the air curtain and air tube approached 60 percent and 40 percent, respectively, with low interference air velocities. The data also showed that dust reductions were highest for positions closest to the device and that these levels decreased with distance. This paper also evaluates a metal rake, a flexible insert, and a rigid insert for cleaning the roof bolter dust collector box. Less dust was produced when using the rigid insert. Surprisingly, the flexible insert was sometimes no better than scraping or raking the dust onto the mine floor. However, little dust got on the coveralls when using either of the inserts.

By W. A. Cole

Underground mining methods at the Gray mine of Tri-State Zinc, Inc., are of special interest because of the low unit costs achieved through use of jumbos and loading equipment mounted un crawler-type tracks and of diesel trucks that haul from the stoping areas to the mill through inclined adits. The operating company, Tri-State Zinc, Inc., is a wholly owned subsidiary of Gold Fields American Development Co., Ltd., the latter being the American branch of New Consolidated Gold Fields, Ltd., a British-owned company.

Jan 1, 1957

By Manuel Gomez

The heat contents of thermally dried lignite, subbituminous B coal, and their corresponding low-temperature chars were determined at various temperatures below the highest temperature to which these materials had been exposed before testing. Similar studies were made on high-temperature char and coke, spent shale, and ash prepared from both coal and spent shale. Heat content of the carbonaceous materials tested correlated well with temperature. Heat con-tent results for spent shale compared well with the published results. Statistical analysis of experimental data together with published information showed moisture, volatile matter, carbon content, and temperature to be the principal variables influencing the specific heat of coal. The specific heat of devolatilized carbonaceous substances, char and coke, approached that of graphite as the carbonization temperature was increased. The elemental specific heats of coal constituents, estimated from the ultimate analysis and the specific heat of coal, compared favorably with published elemental specific heats.

Jan 1, 1965

By James M. Spear

The U.S. Bureau of Mines and the U.S. Geological Survey conducted a mineral survey of the Elk Creek RARE II area during the summer of 1981. The study area encompasses 18,900 acres [29.5 sq mi (7,680 ha)] along Elk Creek, 18 mi (30 km) southeast of Covello, California. No mineral resources were identified by the U.S. Bureau of Mines during this survey. Assay results of samples taken in this area indicate only trace amounts of manganese and chromium. No radioactive or fluorescent minerals were detected. No oil and gas, coal, or geothermal leases have been recorded for the study area.

Jan 1, 1982

By H. Kenworthy

"INTRODUCTION ..Although the occurrence of iron ore in Missouri was recognized by Marquette as early as 1673, the first known mining and smelting operation was conducted in 1815. This operation was near Arcadia, Iron County, the first of its kind west of the Mississippi-Ohio River system. Several small furnaces of short life were erected in Missouri in the ensuing 30 years. However, until the extensive deposits of Iron Mountain and Pilot Knob were opened between 1843 and 1850, the state remained a minor producer of iron. It was this district which was chiefly responsible for the prominent position Missouri held in the iron industry until the late 1880's. At this time the easily minable high-grade ores became exhausted and the discovery of the immense Lake Superior deposits depressed the raw-ore price to such an extent that any mines ceased to operate. 3/Small yearly production of iron ores continued in Missouri to the present. Owing to war demands for hard ore suitable for open-hearth steel, the M. A. Hanna Co., through its subsidiary, the Ozark Ore Co., reopened the Iron Mountain, deposits and installed new equipment in an old concentrator to handle the low-grade ores left from previous operations. At present, ore production is from open pits, but underground mining is contemplated in the future. About 2,000 tons a day of iron ore is treated by gravity concentration of material from the open pits in the immediate vicinity. The concentrate is shipped to the Birmingham, Ala., district and to Granite City, Ill., for smelting. The coarse tailing is sold for ballast and concrete aggregate. The iron requirements of the concentrate stipulated by the purchaser are not difficult to meet, but the phosphorus is frequently higher than desired. For 1946 the concentrates averaged 54.18 percent iron and 0.235 percent phosphorus with low sulfur. The Ozark Ore Co. concentrate, however, sometimes contains as much as 0.40 percent phosphorus. The phosphorus in ores from those portions of the deposits wherein the phosphorus occurs with siliceous gangue is readily rejected in the milling, but in much of the ore the phosphorus is associated with the iron and concentrated with the iron minerals. Selective mining is impossible owing to the spotty occurrence of the phosphorus mineral. Often within 5 feet the ore will change from low phosphorus to high phosphorus, and it would be expedient to find a method of rejecting enough phosphorus at the mill from the latter type of ore to meet the phosphorus specification."

Feb 1, 1948

Develop tools that mine personnel can use to comply with 30 CFR,Part 47. Background The new MSHA rule, 30 CFR, Part 47 (also known as the HazCom rule), requires all mines to develop a written program to track hazardous chemicals at their sites. More specifically, the rule requires that mines list all chemicals and determine which are hazardous; develop a written Hazard Communication Program; label all containers used to store hazardous chemicals; obtain or develop Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) for all chemicals stored or produced; provide miners with training in working around hazardous chemicals; and make information about hazardous chemicals available to all workers. All mines with six or more employees must have complied with the new rule by September 23, 2002, and mines with five or fewer employees will have to be in compliance by March 21, 2003.

Mar 1, 2003

By Ralph H. Espach

The value of careful fractionation in the manufacture of petroleum products is recognized more and more by petroleum refiners. Recent studies have shown that the quality of the products depends largely on the type of fractionating equipment and on the care used in operating the equipment. For example Rue3 has shown that careful fractionation of pressure distillate will greatly reduce the amount of chemical treatment necessary to produce finished gasoline. The advantages of the combination of pipe still and bubble tower in obtaining good fractionation are well recognized in the petroleum industry. However, the equipment designed in the past has in general been much too large for convenient laboratory use. The present paper describes a continuous-distillation apparatus for the laboratory study of fractionation. This apparatus has given very satisfactory results in the study of different crude oils and petroleum products. A discussion of the theory and action of bubble towers has not been given, as this subject has been discussed previously by Cooke and Rue4. It is believed that the distillation curves of the products obtained from this apparatus show clearly its capabilities.

Jan 1, 1928

By H. F. Yancey

About 65 percent of the more than 400 million tons of coal produced annually in the United States is mechanically cleaned to remove the inorganic impurities before being sent to market. The impurities, principally shale and clay with some pyrite, average about 20 percent of the raw coal treated. Nearly 95 percent of the tonnage is treated by wet processes, in which water, suspensions of solids in water, or occasionally calcium chloride solutions are employed. Difference in density of coal and impurity is the basis of these processes. Of major importance in the separation is the competency of the impurities, that is, the resistance of the impurities to size disintegration in water. In general, the impurities are more resistant in geologically older coals or those in effect made older by metamorphism. If the impurities suffer reduction in particle size when immersed in water, the separation of organic from inorganic material becomes more difficult, Recently the Scientific Department of the National Goal Board (Great Britain) undertook fundamental research into the interaction of shale and water and also developed an empirical method of assessing shale breakdown or disintegration. 6

Jan 1, 1962

By FRANCIS FEEHAN

Safety first is no longer merely a motto ; in some industries and in some parts of the mining industry it is an accomplished fact . In connection with the National Safety Competition of 1928 in which 284 mines and quarries participated , 42 plants were operated without a single lost - time accident . The winning company in the bituminous group had an accident severity rate of 0.053 per thousand man hours of exposure . Excellent safety records of various kinds are becoming more and more frequent , and the indication is that in reality safety is first in many mines and qquuaarrrriieess .. The safety achievements in the Stewart mine of W. J. Rainey , Inc. , are unusual even among mines winning awards in the competition .

Apr 1, 1930

By Constantine C. Popoff

This report reviews and analyzes, by a simple analytical and logical reasoning, the conventional methods of reserve computations of mineral deposits described in various domestic and foreign publications. It brings together, formulates, and evaluates the principles underlying interpretation of exploration data; and ties such principles to the proposed classification of methods. The material is discussed in sufficient detail to allow general application.

Jan 1, 1966

By William H. Lesser

Never before have mine managers in the anthracite region of Pennsylvania been so seriously concerned about the rising cost of pumping mine water. Many of them know that future pumping charges may affect their operating profits adversely to an extent that will make it necessary to abandon some mines. Increased pumping charges in the anthracite industry are currently comparable in importance with higher mining costs; in fact, profitable operation of some mines depends not only upon the cost of mining coal but also upon whether they can be kept free from water at reasonable cost. Pumping charges are relatively low during the early development of a mine, but they increase rapidly as development progresses. Numerous crop falls, strippings, and. abandoned adjacent properties contribute unfavorably to the volume of water produced during mining. The foregoing conditions and the existence of large underground pools below existing mining levels present water problems of such magnitude and cost that some mine owners cannot continue to operate profitably.

Jan 1, 1950