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By Leonardo Massone

The p-y method is one of the most popular methods in pile design and has been calibrated for various boundary conditions using numerical and experimental studies during recent years. Most studies on reinforced concrete (RC) piles have included the impact of flexural nonlinearity, (e.g. nonlinear moment?curvature relations) but not considered associated pile shear deformations when deriving p-y curves from field data. Common p-y curves may be better applicable for piles with flexure dominated failures (e.g. piles with free- head boundary conditions). For piles with fixed head boundaries (i.e. rotation restrained piles) shear deformations could be of significant influence. To study this problem, a coupled shear flexure interaction model for axial-bending-shear behavior coded in OpenSees was applied to a 0.61 m (2 ft) diameter flagpole and a 0.61m (2 ft) diameter fixed head pile specimen to investigate the possible influence of shear deformations to the overall pile responses. The surrounding soil was represented by p-y curves derived from prior large scale testing on piles with similar boundary conditions. Analysis results show that for flagpole piles, shear forces and shear deformations were insignificant. Considerable contributions of pile shear displacements and forces were observed for the fixed head pile, with shear displacements contributing up to 40% of the total pile displacement. Results suggest that nonlinear shear deformations for reinforced concrete piles should be considered for fixed-head or similar conditions, and that currently used p-y curves may underestimate the actual lateral pile displacement and possibly lead to unsafe design for the particular boundary condition.

Jan 1, 2012

By Ali Porbaha

In today's fast-track construction environment, owners are searching for non-conventional technologies to build their projects faster and safer while maintaining traffic flow during construction. To that end designers and contractors are providing solutions that incorporate many unique features to expedite construction processes. In addition to timely delivery of the finished highway products, there is an increasing interest in making the initial investment in applying innovative technologies and thereby minimizing costly maintenance of highway projects. Accordingly, the aim of this paper (along with the accompanying paper) is to examine innovative technologies, developed mostly in Europe, that accelerate construction of highway, runway and railway embankment foundations. For each technology, a basic concept, installation technique(s), and design considerations are discussed, along with the case history of a real-world project. The Geotextile Encased Columns (GEC), AuGeo, and Continuous Flight Auger (CFA) are presented in Part I. Deep Mixing (DM), Mass stabilization, Cut-Mix-Injection (FMI), and Combined soil Stabilization with Vertical columns (CSV) technologies are discussed in Part II.

Jan 1, 2002

By Vijaya R, Boominathan A

The design of a rubble mound breakwater resting on a problematic seabed is quite challenging and expensive. In the present study, stage-wise construction of a typical section of the breakwater for a proposed port on the eastern coast of India is carried out. The major challenge envisaged in the design of breakwater is the subsoil strata which consists of soft clayey soil. As it is difficult to improve the soft clayey soil in the marine condition, construction stages are meticulously planned in such a way that consolidation takes place due to the preloading of breakwater, which in turn leads to the strength improvement without any special ground treatment. Thus, the breakwater is designed to be constructed in 7 stages. An initial geostatic analysis is carried out, followed by a plastic stress-strain analysis, consolidation analysis, and safety analysis for each stage, using finite element (FE) code PLAXIS. It is found from the FE analysis that due to the presence of the soft clayey soil, the critical slip circle was formed in the base. It was observed that the staged construction over a period of 2 years provides a sufficient increase in the factor of safety of above 1.5 at the various stages of construction. Hence, it was recommended to construct the breakwater with 7 stages over a period of 2 years.

Sep 1, 2022

By Joram M. Amir, Ernst Niederleithinger, Nikolaus Schneider

"Abstract: Diaphragm walls are used to provide a stable and watertight confinement for the construction of tunnels, underground railway stations, deep basements and other structures requiring deep excavations. Water seepage and soil loss through the joints have occurred on several occasions, causing extensive damage. This may have been due to uncontrolled concrete flow between the joints, unexpected geologic conditions or just poor workmanship.Different ways of quality assurance are applied on construction sites. Most of them rely on recording parameters of the construction equipment and conventional concrete quality control. In the frame of the EUREKA/ZIM project DiWaQ we have looked at several ways to perform non-destructive quality control. Some methods are to be applied after excavation before concreting (phase 1); others after the wall is completed (phase 2).For phase 1 we have used two different principles for checking the shape of the excavation, especially the joint to existing panels. A mechanical device which can be adapted to the excavating equipment was developed; field tested and validated on test and construction sites. It is described in detail in another paper in the same volume. A sonar-based device with a 10 mm resolution has shown good performance in the lab, but is still under development.For phase 2 different temperature sensors have been lowered into access holes to monitor the hydration heat developed during concrete curing. The same tubes can also be used to perform electromagnetic and ultrasonic crosshole measurements across or along joints to detect flaws. Especially the ultrasonic method has shown promising results on validation specimen at the BAM test site at Horstwalde, but limitations as well. Success substantially depended on the joint type, flaw size and distance of the sensors to the joint."

Jan 1, 2014

By Camilo A. Alvarez, Stephen K. Harris, Brian R. Zuckerman, Philip J. Meymand, Danielle M. Steinmetz

"The sleek new air traffic control tower at the San Francisco International Airport stands at 221 feet tall and is set to replace the existing air traffic control tower by 2016. This aluminum-clad, torch-like structure and three-story Integrated Facilities Building at the base are situated between Terminal 1 and Terminal 2 adjacent to the tarmac. Berkel & Company Contractors, Inc. and Simpson Gumpertz & Heger Inc. worked in conjunction with structural engineers from Walter P. Moore Engineers and Consultants, geotechnical engineers from URS Corporation, architects from Fentress Architects, and general contractors from Hensel Phelps Construction Company on the performance-based design of a foundation to support this critical facility, which is located in a high seismic zone and situated on the very soft soil of the San Francisco Bay margin. With the loading demands and performance criteria established and Young Bay Mud thicknesses ranging from 44 to 47 feet thick across the site, the design team employed a total of 214 24-inch diameter Auger Pressure Grouted piles, which were drilled into the underlying Franciscan Formation as deep as 148 feet below existing grade. Pile reinforcement included full-length confined cages.The piles were designed to resist Maximum Considered Earthquake axial demands as high as 1,400 kips in compression and 700 kips in tension. The performance-based pile design included verification of shear capacity under double-plastic-hinge flexural mechanisms, verification of pile ductility via non-linear moment-curvature analyses, and consideration of curvatures due to kinematic as well as inertial loading.The team implemented an extensive pile load test program including a full-scale static compressive load test on a sacrificial test pile and five non-destructive high-strain dynamic load tests, four of which were performed on indicator piles that were later used as part of the foundation system. These piles were monitored with extensive embedded instrumentation throughout their length, including strain gauges and accelerometers."

Jan 1, 2017

By Jesse R. Jacobson

A large casino complex in Cherokee, North Carolina recently underwent a $633 million expansion that involved substantial foundation challenges. The site is located in a valley on the southern edge of the Great Smoky Mountains National Park, where subsurface conditions typically consist of varying thicknesses of fill overlying alluvium, residuum, partially weathered rock and rock. The fill and alluvium contain cobbles and boulders as large as several feet in diameter. The residuum and partially weathered rock are very thick in some areas, and the depth at which consistently high quality rock is encountered is highly variable. To reduce the foundation costs for the expansion, continuous flight auger (CFA) piles were proposed in lieu of micropiles. CFA piles are not generally used in this geologic environment and concerns regarding their selection included: (1) an uncertainty that CFA piles could be successfully constructed given the difficult conditions and (2) a lack of regional data regarding unit resistance values and load transfer characteristics. To address these concerns, a design-phase test program was undertaken to evaluate pile constructability, develop an understanding of the load transfer behavior, and establish the required pile lengths. The program included soil test borings, shear wave velocity measurements, timed auger probes, instrumented pile load tests and observation of exhumed piles. It was demonstrated that CFA piles could be advanced through the fill, cobble/boulder-laden alluvium, residuum and into the partially weathered rock, albeit with some limitations. Under axial loading, the pile response was very stiff and relatively high unit resistance values were measured. Pile instrumentation allowed for the evaluation and use of design pile lengths shorter than that tested, and the overall reduction in pile lengths yielded a 40 percent reduction in foundation cost. In general, CFA piles were determined to be a suitable, economical foundation alternative.

Jan 1, 2011

By Sven Schröer, Lilma Schimmel, Dimiter Alexiew

"The Geotextile Encased Columns (GEC) deep foundation system for embankments on soft soils was introduced some 20 years ago and is now considered State-of-the-art worldwide.The GECs consist of compacted granular fill, similar to common gravel columns, with one decisive difference: they are confined in a high-strength low-strain flexible geotextile “cylinder” (encasement). This engineered element provides a very efficient tool to control and optimize the behavior of the system. GECs perform very well even in extremely soft soils ensuring bearing capacity (stability) and reducing settlements. Due to the encasement, they a lso provide high lateral ductility. A wide range of fills including sands can be used.The remarkable reduction of vertical stresses in the soft soil surrounding the GECs results in a decrease of lateral pressure as well. Such reduction combined with the lateral ductility allow GECs to be also used for lateral pressure-relief adjacent to sensitive foundations, e.g. rigid piles. The application of GECs as lateral pressure relief was recently used in Brazil and Germany where bridge abutments were built on concrete reinforced-piles. The GECs below the bridge approaches and adjacent to the piles decreased the lateral pressure to acceptable values.This paper presents two case studies for which the most relevant parameters, the geotechnical conditions, specific problems, engineering philosophy, final solution and lessons learned are discussed. Furthermore, instrumentation programs were applied in both projects. The most important results in terms of displacements and stresses are shown, evaluated, summarized and commented upon, focusing on the lateral stress-relief, followed by conclusions and recommendations."

Jan 1, 2016

By Pasi Korkeakoski

There are about 400 multi-storey buildings founded on wooden piles in the city centre of Turku in Finland. Soil conditions are variable from hard rock to very soft clay. Due to the soil conditions and ground water lowering there are basically four different types of underpinning projects. Under dimensioned cohesion piles in a deep clay layer, decaying cohesion piles, a combination of these two reasons and decaying end bearing piles in a thin clay layer area. Many different execution methods have been used such as impact driving, jacking and drilling and combinations of these.

Jan 1, 2000

By Ahmad F. Souri, Murad Abu-Farsakh

"In this study, the static lateral resistance of vertical and battered pile groups was analyzed using 3D finite element analysis. The battered pile group finite element model was verified using the results from a case study performed on the M19 pier foundation of the I-10 twin span bridge in Louisiana. The vertical pile group model was created by adjusting pile inclinations of the verified battered pile group model. The finite element models utilized nonlinear constitutive models for materials behavior and a soil-pile interface model. The results showed that the battered pile group had greater lateral resistance than the vertical pile group with 60-70% lower pile cap displacement. The largest lateral load share was found in the middle rows in the battered pile group, while it was in the leading row for the vertical. The soil resistance profiles showed that the vertical pile group mobilized greater soil resistance compared to the battered pile group.INTRODUCTIONThe lateral resistance of a pile-soil system depends on both pile stiffness and soil reaction. The soil reaction is a nonlinear function of deflection, depth, pile stiffness, and soil stiffness and strength. The lateral capacity of single piles is evaluated at the maximum deflection limit, and can be predicted using established methods such as the p-y curve method (e.g., Matlock 1970, Reese et al. 1974), elastic solution by Poulos and Davis (1980), the strain wedge model (Ashour et al. 2004), and the finite element method (e.g., Yang and Jeremic 2002, Comodromos and Pitilakis 2005, Isenhower et al. 2014). For pile groups, the lateral capacity of a pile-in-group is less than the isolated single pile case because the soil in front of the pile-in-group is weakened by the overlap of stress zones from surrounding piles. The latter is referred to as the shadowing or group effect (Fig. 1). Prediction of the lateral capacity for pile groups is based on the p-y curve method for single piles with the use of empirical factors called “p-multipliers”. The p-multipliers accounts for the shadowing effect, and are a function of pile-pile spacing and soil type (e.g., Brown et al. 1987, 1988, McVay et al. 1995). Moreover, the lateral capacity of pile groups is also influenced by vertical load, piles arrangement, and slenderness ratio (e.g., Rao et al. 1998, Patra and Pise 2001, Ilyas et al. 2004, Hussien et al. 2012).Battered piles refer to piles installed at an angle with respect to the vertical to increase their lateral capacity. The greater lateral resistance is achieved by the additional axial reaction in the pile. Battered piles are called “negative battered” when inclined in the load direction, and “positive battered” when inclined opposite to the load direction (Fig. 1). Previous studies concluded that the lateral resistance is highest in positive battered piles followed by negative battered and vertical piles, respectively (Murthy 1964, Meyerhof and Yalcin 1993, Zhang et al. 1999)."

Jan 1, 2017

By Martin Pratt

This paper is an overview of deep foundation engineering in Hong Kong past, present and future. The enormity of the subject compared with the space available makes brevity inevitable. Issues of construction and design are covered and some examples of recent challenging projects are given. The content is aimed at those with an interest in foundations generally, but with limited knowledge of the Hong Kong scene. Reference is made to informative publications for further reading on specific topics.

Jan 1, 2000

By Dipl. -Ing. (FH) Thomas Schmitt, Dr. Melvin England

Foundations in Geneva are difficult and expensive due a large overlayer of clay and silt above competent bearing material in the moraine. Common foundation schemes use deep barrettes or bored piles, first passing large, weak layers of soil before finally reaching acceptable, solid moraine with reasonable values of skin friction and end bearing resistance, thus requiring further deep penetration for the necessary length for load transfer in the moraine. Depths of more than 60 m (200 ft) in Geneva are common in this region. At the Onyx-Project Geneva Implenia Foundation Company also encountered these circumstances. Despite usual solutions Implenia referred to an old and well known, but still intelligent and in today’s words smart, efficient and economical solution. Using small shafts, passing the large layers of clay and silt, ending with the pile toe in the underlaying moraine with a belled or underreamed base was the technic adopted to save drilling time, reduce spoil and concrete, so finally reducing the CO2 footprint. Piles with enlarged base (“belled” or “underreamed”) are reported at the beginning of the 20th century, for example at Chicago, which has a quite similar geotechnical structure as Geneva with the need of deep foundations. The first pile base enlargements were built in hand-dug caissons with wood lagging and steel ring bracing. In the 50s and 60s piling works were more and more mechanized, driven by the development of more powerful cranes and specialized drill rigs. Additionally the first tools for mechanized base enlargement were invented around that period. This report describes the project situation at Geneva, the drilling and enlargement technique of the pile base, the verification of the design values with an in-situ bi-directional load test and the smart execution by reduction of CO2 and costs.

May 1, 2022

By Mario Mauro, Jeff Taylor, Carlos Morales

"In 2007 the US Army Corps of Engineers classified the Herbert Hoover Dike in Florida as a Dam Safety Action Classification (DSAC) 1 dam, and started the implementation of one of the largest dam rehabilitation projects in the nation. The construction of the cutoff wall is a key feature of this rehabilitation work to upgrade the dike to current dam safety criteria. The cutoff wall installation is currently being completed on Reach 1, which extends from Port Mayaca to Belle Glade, under a Multiple Task Order Contract based on performance specifications and stringent verification criteria.For the construction of the cutoff wall TREVIICOS selected the self-hardening slurry method. Since the cutoff wall is installed through a layer of highly variable limestone with Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS) up to 14,000 psi, the excavation requires the use of the hydromill equipment. This is the first successful application of the hydromill technology with self-hardening slurry in a large scale project in the US. This paper presents the details of the method utilized, the quality control procedures, and the experience gained over seven miles of cutoff wall installed.INTRODUCTIONProject LocationThe Herbert Hoover Dike (HHD) system, around Lake Okeechobee in South Florida, consists of a series of levees, culverts and locks and is approximately 143 miles long (Figure 1).Lake Okeechobee is the second largest freshwater lake in the lower 48 states of the United States. The lake is the primary drinking water source for numerous communities around the lake and to millions of people living along the lower east coast. The lake is also a vital source of irrigation for the agricultural industry in the South Florida region.Lake Okeechobee is 33 miles wide from north to south and 30 miles wide from east to west and has a surface area of 730 square miles. The average water depth of the lake is 9 ft."

Jan 1, 2017

By M. T. Davisson

Pile compression load capacity prediction methods are divided into four categories for purposes of discussing their reliability compared to static load test results. The categories considered are: 1) static analysis, 2) driving formulas, 3) wave equation analysis, and 4) dynamic measurement and analysis. It is concluded that any method of static analysis that works for the geological deposit in question may be satisfactory. However, any given method can be quite wrong when applied to other deposits of soil that are different in terms of their engineering and geological characteristics. Dynamic formulas are found to be theoretically unjustifiable. The ready availability of the wave equation analysis for microcomputers eliminates the need to utilize dynamic formulas. The wave equation analysis is found to be the best analytical method for making predictions both for design and for construction control. Dynamic methods of measurement and analysis are found useful, but have limitations that have caused troubles on many projects. Two case histories are presented that show the limitations of dynamic measurement and analysis, and of the wave equation analysis. Soil deposits exist that defeat both the wave equation and dynamic measurement techniques; static load tests are currently the only method of proving the load capacity of piles in such soils.

Jan 1, 1991

By Mahesh Hingorani

Integrity issues for bored cast-in-situ piles have raised the need for the use of non-destructive tests to verify pile integrity and detect possible anomalies in installed pile sections that could adversely affect their serviceability. Integrity inspections performed after installations are often the most reasonable alternative available to assess the shaft quality. The two most common methods are pulse-echo from a small hand held hammer at the pile top, and cross-hole ultrasonic transmissions along the shaft between parallel sonic pipes. While different in technique, each method has its advantages and limitations. This paper emphasizes more on the degree of accuracy of low-strain pile integrity test by comparing the results with cross-hole sonic logging. Reliable data collection and interpretation by an experienced test engineer will reveal the integrity of the pile. Cross-hole sonic logging and low-strain pile integrity testing were both specified as quality control measures for a metro rail project in India. Both cross-hole sonic logging and low-strain pile integrity testing indicated defects in several bored piles. Also minor imperfections recorded by cross-hole sonic logging were observed in low-strain results. The observations of the two test methods are presented and compared for a better understanding of the importance of low-strain test results for any project. INTRODUCTION Cast-in-situ concrete piles are often chosen as a deep foundation alternative where challenging soil conditions exist. Although quality control measures are almost always taken during the installation of the piles, it is often difficult or impossible to confirm the integrity of the pile at this stage, particularly in wet conditions. Because of the relatively high probability of bored piles having anomalies, quality assurance of each bored pile is essential for each project.

Jan 1, 2019

By M. Melih Demirkan, Juan J. Gutierrez, Raghav Ramanathan

"As the capital of the United Arab Emirates (UAE), Abu Dhabi is one of the world’s fastest-developing cities. To sustain its significant growth rate, Abu Dhabi must surmount challenging engineering problems in the most efficient manner. One of the challenges facing Abu Dhabi is ground settlement caused by poor groundwater control practices in inherently difficult subsurface conditions. For construction projects in Abu Dhabi located near the Arabian Gulf, groundwater is frequently encountered and must be accounted for and addressed during design and construction. Abu Dhabi City CenterRecently, the Abu Dhabi government developed a geodatabase by digitizing, processing and qualifying an extensive amount of existing information (i.e., more than 26,000 borehole logs). Because of the evaluation and processing of the geodatabase, detailed maps of geotechnical and hydrogeological surface features were generated using 3D modeling. Ultimately, the geodatabase was used to develop risk maps indicating geohazards, such as sabhka (or salt flats), uncontrolled fill and cavities. This information identifies the location and extent of the areas vulnerable to surface subsidence. Dewatering can change pore water pressure, which, in turn, alters the effective vertical stress in a soil mass and can affect groundwater chemistry. Changes in pore water pressure and groundwater chemistry can significantly affect soil and rock. The potential effects of dewatering include:• Change in effective stresses and shear strengths in soils• Increase in seepage velocities and pressures• Erosion or transport of soil particles and piping• Settlement• Collapse of subsurface cavities or voids• Transport of groundwater containing contaminants• Dissolution of soluble materials, such as rock salt or gypsum"

Jan 1, 2017

By G. Tamaro

The World Financial Center is situated on a 60,000 square meter site at Battery Park City at the southern tip of Manhattan Island. The foundations for the buildings and the related infrastructure posed difficult design and construction problems since the site was filled land in the Hudson (North) River. Foundation construction was made difficult by both the geology and the existence of two railroad tunnels which passed under the site. The soils at the site were unsuitable to support construction of heavy structures, and as a result, all of the foundations had to be carried down to bedrock, or the glacial till over rock. Two buildings were supported on piling and special battered caissons which provided lateral support against wind loading. The other two buildings were supported directly on rock, requiring excavation to depths of 19 meters (63 feet) below grade.

Jan 1, 1989

By Donald A. Bruce

The construction of major structures in karstic limestone terrains poses difficult problems to designer and contractor alike. This reflects the inherent variability of such conditions, and also the significant impacts caused by the construction processes themselves. Three case histories are provided of recent projects in the United States: the sealing of a major inflow into a quarry, the improvement of a highly loaded bridge pier foundation, and the installation of high capacity micropiles. Emphasis is placed on problem assessment and execution verification.

Jan 1, 2002

By Mohammad Nasim

Vertical expansion of existing structures frequently requires foundation retrofitting to enhance the capacity of existing foundations for supporting additional loads. Owing to their small diameter, a variety of suitable drilling methods available for installation, and smaller installation equipment capable of operating under limited headroom conditions, micropiles are often preferred for foundation retrofitting. This paper presents a case history demonstrating application of micropiles to underpin the existing foundation of the Washington D.C. Children?s National Medical Center (CNMC) for its future expansion. Located at 111 Michigan Avenue in northwest Washington, DC, portions of the hospital currently extend five stories above grade and three levels below-grade as parking garages. The hospital intends to expand the surgical wing up to the current build out (five stories) above the remaining portion of the existing parking garage. The original foundations consist of 80-ton Raymond Step-Tapered piles. New loading on the foundations required each Raymond pile to be capable of supporting 150 tons. Results from quick load tests on existing piles indicated that two entire column lines (Column Line A and B) would experience loads beyond their capacity, requiring enhancement of the existing foundation at these locations. The design and construction of the foundation upgrading work was particularly challenging due to various project constraints related to a high groundwater table, micropile installation under limited head room, and ensuring that the parking garage remained fully operational for the entire duration of construction. The paper presents the challenges faced during testing of existing foundations amid a high groundwater table, design developments of underpinning options to support the additional column loads, difficulties and challenges encountered during installation of the micropiles and construction of the micropile pilecaps, and value engineering options developed during various phases of the project. Understanding that micropiles are often a preferred option for foundation retrofitting, the case history is expected to provide a baseline design approach and innovative solutions to typical challenges faced during construction, thereby reducing potential cost overruns during design development and construction of similar future projects.

Jan 1, 2008

By Nagarajkumar BV

Pavai-and TeampT JV started working on the project T49A, Sumbar J & K State as part of slope and earth stabilization for ongoing Banihal - Katra Railway Connection Project. This project has several tunnels and bridges with slopes that are protected with various types of protection system such rock bolting, rock anchors, and micro piles. For the main two bridges Bring number 2 and 3 at T49 A location Pavai - TeampT JV has to design and execute the circular group of micro piles (Fig.1) for deep excavation of earth for the purpose of construction of well foundations (CAISSON FOUNDATIONS) for both bridge 2 and 3 piers. In this paper we discuss about the purpose, basic design, detailed design approaches and actual work implementation of micro pile with composite rock bolt applications and permanent rock anchors for slope stabilization works in this project.

Nov 1, 2022

By Robert E. Schock, Eric J. Risberg

"Less than 20,000 years ago, the last of the glaciers retreated from the Chicago region. They left behind sheets of glacial clay till underlain by dense, over-consolidated till (“hardpan”) below which is the limestone bedrock, found about 100 ft (30.5 m) below street level. The most notable feature in this profile is the unusually soft clay till that has historically been called “Chicago Blue Clay.”But the founding fathers of Chicago really didn’t care about what was under the ground. They recognized the importance of the city’s location as a potential trade and transportation hub. With access to the East through the Great Lakes and access to the West through the Mississippi River system, the viability of the city was evident. Chicago’s population grew rapidly. The city continued to grow through the Civil War years, but was dealt a devastating blow in 1871 by the Great Chicago Fire, leaving the city in ruins. The Birth of the SkyscraperAfter the cleanup of the Great Fire came the first real building boom in Chicago’s history. During this era, buildings were generally founded on shallow footings bearing on sand or clay. Many multistory buildings were constructed between 1880 and 1890 on spread footings. The first tall buildings were constructed with load bearing masonry walls. These early tall buildings suffered significant settlement as the soft clay underwent consolidation.The Home Insurance Building, built in 1885, was 12-stories tall and is generally acknowledged to be the first “skyscraper” in the U.S. It was the first building constructed with an iron skeleton frame instead of load bearing masonry walls. Spread footings were used under the interior columns in an effort to better distribute the loads, but the building still experienced large settlements.Construction began for the Monadnock Building in 1891. The 17-story building was built using load bearing walls 7 ft (2.1 m) thick, supported on rail-grillage footing foundations. When completed in 1893, the Monadnock Building boasted the title “World’s Largest Office Building.” The total building settlement over the past 125 years has been measured at over 20 in (0.51 m). The engineering community in the late 19th century observed settlement, but did not yet understand the process of consolidation of the soft clay beneath the city. During this time, many of the new buildings required structural repairs during and after construction; the problem was especially acute in buildings where highrise towers joined lower podium structures."

Jan 1, 2016