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By Frank E. Cash

Accident prevention is an integral part of the operating procedure of the petroleum industry, and refinery officials and employees throughout the United States are exerting concerted effort to reduce the frequency and severity of accidents and are realizing definite results. In other words, the petroleum industry is safety conscious to a much creator decree than most of the other mineral industries. On January l, 1936, there were 11 operating, refineries in Louisiana with a crude-oil capacity of 199,750 barrels per day.4/ This report deals with safety in four of these refineries representing. 72 percent of the refinery capacity of Louisiana.

Jan 1, 1940

By G. L. Gates

Five possible sources of water for waterflooding of petroleum reservoirs in the arid San Joaquin Valley of California were considered. Three of them (water produced with petroleum, water from a shallow saline aquifer, and waste irrigation water) were analyzed chemically; laboratory information for one (sea water) had been developed during a previous study. A series of laboratory tests made on the fifth source (fresh water) determined the solubility of calcium sulfate dihydrate in water. Laboratory analyses included the following: Chemical analyses of water produced with petroleum and waste irrigation water; solubility of calcium sulfate dihydrate in water and brines; the effect of excess sulfate on the solubility of calcium sulfate in brines; the presence of sulfate-reducing bacteria; and the permeability of cores from a petroleum reservoir to air, to water from other petroleum reservoirs, and to waste irrigation water. The results showed that most of the waters and mixtures of waters are compatible with petroleum reservoir waters and are generally suitable for injection. The calcium content of some of the formation waters is quite high, and care must be taken to prevent precipitation of calcium sulfate dihydrate. The permeability of the few cores tested was about the same to water and brines as to air, indicating that formation damage due to clay swelling will not be serious. The waters most likely to be available for injection are water produced with petroleum, water from shallow saline aquifers, and waste irrigation water.

Jan 1, 1970

By K. K. Kelley, W. W. Weller

This report contains experimentally determined heat capacity data for four crystalline sulfides -- AsS , GeS , NiS , and Ni3 S₂ -- over the temperature range from 50 ° to 298.15 ° K. The heat capacity data were used to evaluate the entropies of the sulfides at 298.15 ° K. Entropies of formation from the metals and rhombic sulfur and from the metals and diatomic sulfur gas are also included .

Jan 1, 1964

By H. P. Hermance

The Ely mine, which at one time was the largest producer of copper in the United States, has been idle for the past 30 years. A remarkably continuous ore shoot probably averaging 100 feet wide and 19 feet thick was mined on about a 25° slope for 3,400 feet on the incline. The ore was massive sulfides containing chalcopyrite, pyrrhotite, pyrite, and sphalerite. The estimated production of the Ely mine is 400,000 tons of ore averaging 3.3 percent copper. Because of the critical position of copper during the recent war, a search for extensions and recurrences of parallel ore shoots at the Ely deposit seemed warranted. The Bureau of Mines surveyed selected areas by geophysical methods, diamond-drilled nine holes, and sampled mine dumps during its investigations, which began in 1942 and terminated in 1946. The diamond drilling totaled 5,229 feet. The logs of the holes include chemical analyses of mineralized sections.

Jan 1, 1949

By Rudolf Kudlich

"During the coming winter, it is probable that many householders who have habitually been users of anthracite coal will be obliged to turn to some other fuel for heating purposes, because of the limited supply of anthracite. The next best fuel, from a standpoint of cleanliness and ease of operation, is coke, but here again the supply is inadequate and the householder will have to fall back on bituminous coal. Though bituminous coal has the dis¬advantage of being dirty to handle, requiring more care in firing, and of giving off considerable smoke, it will be more generally available, costs less, and in the better grades which will naturally find their way to the domestic market, is higher in heat value, and contains less ash than anthracite.Choice of CoalThere a variety of bituminous coals are available, the householder should choose a low volatile coal, such as New River, Pocahontas, or some other ""smokeless"" coal, or the British coal now being offered in the markets along the Atlantic seaboard. Though not necessary to have the coal sized, as is the case with anthracite, it will be found cleaner to use coal from which the fine dirt has been screened. If it is found that excessive dust is caused when firing the coal, this can be reduced by slightly wetting the coal at the front of the bin, as it is being used.Method of Firingusing bituminous coal instead of anthracite in the domestic furnace, it will be necessary to use an entirely different method of fir Instead of leveling the fuel bed and putting on fresh coal in an even layer over the entire fire box, the coked and partly burned coal remaining from the previous firing should be pushed as much as possible to one side of the box, and the fresh coal thrown into the empty side so as to leave some burning coal exposed. In this way the green coal is heated slowly, the volatile gases are given off gradually, and are ignited by the burninggoing to waste up the chimney unburned."

Oct 1, 1922

By L. B. Berger, W. P. Yant, J. B. Littlefield

"INTRODUCTION Hydrogen sulphide (H2S) is one of the most toxic industrial gases and of relatively wide occurrence in industry. Among its common industrial occurrences are, in the production and refining of high-sulphur petroleum, in natural gases, in gypsum and sulphur mining, in rock strata and underground waters (where it is encountered in tunneling and caisson work) in blasting with black powder and in blasting high-sulphide ores with other explosives, in gas manufacture, in the carbonization of coal, and in the manufacture of chemicals.The usual methods of detection, other than by the sense of smell, which is lost in 2 to 15 minutes' exposure to 0.010. to 0.015 percent of this gas, 5/ either are too cumbersome for frequent and rapid analyses or, like the wet lead acetate paper test, afford only qualitative results. A qaantitative determination usually involves the use of solutions, bubblers, flowmeters, standard solutions, burettes, and indicators manipulated by trained technical men. All apparatus and methods in common laboratory use are, in general, unsuitable for the field.The physiological response attending exposure to various Concentrations of hydrogen sulphide in air, is as follows, in percent by volume 6/:0.005 to 0.010: Subacute poisoning - slight symptoms, such as mild conjunctivitis and respiratory-tract irritation after 1-hour exposure."

Jun 1, 1935

By R. V. Lundquist

The compound 2Na2O?3CaO?5Al2O3 occurs as a minor phase in lime-soda sinters prepared for extracting aluminum from siliceous aluminum-bearing materials. About 99 percent extraction of sodium and aluminum from synthesized 2Na2O.3CaO.5Al2O3 was obtained in solutions of NaOH-Na2CO3 at leaching temperatures of 50° C and above. Extractions in water were low because insufficient NaOH was generated by hydrolysis. Extractions in NaOH solutions were limited to about 80 percent owing to the precipitation of hydrated calcium aluminates. Rapid extractions of 100 percent were obtainable in NaaC03 solutions, but the subsequent rapid precipitation of alumina trihydrate caused losses in alumina recovery.

Jan 1, 1965

By Almon F. Robertson

The floor of Shady Valley, Johnson County, Tenn., is underlain by the Shady dolomite formation. In places the residual clay derived from this formation contains considerable manganese oxides. Nine properties in Shady Valley and two in Doe Valley were prospected by the Bureau of Mines from January 1943 to April 1943. The results obtained indicate that the ore bodies are small and spotty and, that the ore is not well-adapted to gravity concentration. The work of the Bureau was confined to the open end of the valley. One mile northeast of the Ham Greer property, Beaverdam Creek enters a rocky gorge, and it was believed that the few prospects in this area were of secondary impor-tance and, owing to the steep slope and general roughness of the terrain, that exploration with the rite', bucket-drill would be impracticable. A total of 4,398.5 feet was drilled in 131 holes. In addition, 235 lineal feet of bulldozer trenches were cut and 4.5 feet of test pits were sunk. The following nine properties were explored in Shady Valley: Bentley, Walker, Blevins, Scott, North Ham Greer, South Ham Greer, Lipford, Blackburn, and Steagall In Doe Valley, the Gerd Shoun and Brookshire properties were explored.

Jan 1, 1949

By J. W. Griffith, J. L. Stauffer, L. M. Demers, D. C. Kuhn, S. Riliog

"The relative activation of eicosanoid production which results from the exposure of the alveolar macrophage (AM) to mineral dusts is thought to be a key factor in the pathophysiology of occupational lung disease. We compared in vitro basal and silicastimulated production of prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) and thromboxane A2 (TXA2) by AM from normal humans and non-human primates (Macaca nemistrina). In addition, we instilled mineral dusts directly into one lung of the non-human primate and evaluated AM eicosanoid production at two week intervals following dust instillation. Unstimulated AM from humans produce more PGE2 and TXA2 than do AM from M. nemistrina. However, in vitro exposure of AM from both species to silica dust produced a qualitatively similar increase in TXA2 production accompanied by no change in PGE2 production. Sequential analysis of AM eicosanoid production following a single bolus exposure to bituminous or anthracite coal dusts, titanium dioxide (Ti()i) dust or crystalline silica showed marked variability among individual non-human primates in qualitative and quantitative aspects of dust-induced eicosanoid production. However, the rank order of potency of the different dusts (silica> anthracite> bituminous) correlated with epidemiological evidence relating the type of dust mined to the incidence of pneumoconiosis. These studies suggest that the non-human primate may serve as a model for the study of both the role of eicosanoids in the etiology of dust-induced occupational lung disease and the biochemical basis for individual variability in the response of lung cells to mineral dust exposure. IntroductionOccupational inhalation of mineral dust can lead to chronic debilitating lung disease ( 1,2). One of the key components of the disease process is thought to be the interaction of mineral dust with the alveolar macrophage (AM) and the subsequent release by the AM of inflammatory and fibrotic substances (3,4). Chronic inhalation of mineral dust, depending on the type and amount of dust, may then produce a situation in which ongoing inflammation, accompanied by the destruction of functional lung tissue by products of activated AM and polymorphonuclear neutrophils, stimulates the production of nonfunctional matrix by lung fibroblasts.The AM produces several oxygenated derivatives of arachidonic acid (AA) which may play important roles in dust-induced lung pathophysiology (5,6). In previous studies in the rat, we found that prostaglandin E2 (PGE2). thromboxane A2 (TXA2) and leukotriene 84 (L TB4) were the major AA metabolites produced by AM (7). PGE2 is associated with pro-inflammatory activity (8) as well as anti-fibrotic activity since it downregulates interleukin -1 (IL-1) and tumor necrosis factor (TNF) release by AM (9-11). TXA2 is known to stimulate platelet activity, cause bronchial and vascular smooth muscle contraction (12) and to possess chemotactic activity (13). LTB4 is chemotactic for neutrophils and monocytes (14) and has been suggested as an additional regulatory factor in the release of TNF by AM exposed to silica dust ( 15)."

Nov 1, 1995

By Louis C. Brichta

The Capital Mine is one of, the more important zinc mines in Lawrence County, Mo. Owing to the urgent need for additional zinc during the war and the available facilities for the treatment of zinc-lead ores at the property, the Bureau of Mines examined the mine during July and August 1942 and selected it for further investigation by churn drilling, which was accomplished in the fall of 1943 and spring of 1944. At the conclusion of the drilling on the Capital holdings, the Greenland property, immediately south, was investigated by drilling two additional holes. Results of the investigation are presented in this report.

Jan 1, 1948

By Robert L. Chufo

The U.S. Department of Energy Pittsburgh Research Center,1 has developed and field tested a spatial, spectral sensor for measuring the thickness of mineral deposits. Knowledge of the dielectric constant of the material is not necessary because the electrical properties of the media are determined automatically along with the thickness or distance measurement. The technology was developed to measure the thickness of coal remaining in the roof and floor of a mine or the thickness of a coal pillar remaining between two mining entries for the purpose of guiding a mining machine. However, field tests have shown the new technique is equally valuable for measuring the thickness of each layer in a multilayer manmade structure such as highway paving or building foundations and the thickness of geological deposits other than coal, such as, salt, granite and sandstone. The noncontacting electromagnetic technique uses spatial modulation created by moving a simple dipole sensor antenna in a direction along each axes to be measured while the complex reflection coefficient is measured at multiple frequencies over a two-to-one bandwidth. The antenna motion imparts spatial modulation to the data and enables frequency domain signal processing to solve the problem of media, target and antenna dispersion. The technique overcomes the problem of multipath reflections from nearby metal structures and avoids the use of radio frequency absorbing material. In its present form the system measures material thickness of zero to over 3 m to within ±2.5 cm accuracy. The system parameters are variable to suit the application but for most applications default values of 40 cm antenna motion with measurements made at 401 frequencies from 0.6 to 1.4 GHz at each of 32 antenna positions with a power level of 0 dBm or less are more than adequate to provide a satisfactory signal-to noise ratio. In the range of 0 to 10 m the system operates in the continuous wave mode and by simply turning off the transmitter for ranges beyond 10 m the problems of time domain processing are entirely avoided. The technique can be implemented with a vector network analyzer, a servo controlled L-band antenna positioner, an IEEE488 bus controller and a process computer. An electronics package designed and constructed to operate in the harsh mining environment and providing 1, 2 or 3 dimensional image presentation is being evaluated as a replacement for the network analyzer. Key words: Ground penetration radar, Spatial, Spectral

By F. Garcia, J. Cervik

Recent advances in the commercial separation of gases using membranes have renewed interest in the possibility of applying this technology to the recovery of methane ( CH4 ) from mining operations . This Bureau of Mines report briefly reviews the history of the development of membranes for gas separation , the theory of how they work , and their application to the separation of methane from air and associated problems . However , methane -air mixtures are difficult to separate with membranes because the pertinent gas couples , 02 - N2 , 02 - CH4 , and N2 -CH4 , have poor separation characteristics , as indicated by their separation factors of about 3 or less . Even if these separation factors were substantially higher , there is doubt that methane could be recovered economically from the low concentrations in mine ventilation exhaust ( 2 vol pct or less ) . The exhaust pressures are not sufficient for adequate separation . The power cost of compressing the methane recovered . these mixtures would far exceed the value of New discoveries could make separation of gob hole methane - air mixtures practical . These mixtures have much higher concentrations of methane (from 30 to 100 vol pct ) ; however , for safety reasons , be limited to gob gas with 60 vol pct CH4 or more .

Jan 1, 1988

By G. C. Branner

The bauxite diagram presented as figure 1 was developed to clarify, by graphic means, the theoretical chemical constituents of gibbsite-kaolinite-type bauxite for all possible proportions of these two minerals from pure gibbsite to pure kaolinite. The tables in the report reflect the same date. The diagram provides (1) a graphic representation of the relations of constituents with respect to a ill possible percentages of alumina and silica, (2) a basis for verifying the accuracy of analyses of gibbsite-kaolinite bauxite, and (3) a basis for estimating the type and proportion of alumina hydrate and/or silicate minerals that may be present in gibbsite-kaolinite-type bauxite. The diagram, with accompanying interpretations and use formulas, will be useful to those connected with the mining and processing of bauxite.

Jan 1, 1955

By J. W. Town

The Bureau of Mines conducted phosphate beneficiation studies to determine the influence of mineralogical and textural features on the recovery of phosphate from select bed and composite samples representing different phosphate rock types of the western Phosphoria Formation. Batch heavy-liquid tests showed that ore grade) pellet size, and type of interstitial material were significant parameters affecting concentrate grade and recovery. Recoveries at acid grade (31.5 percent P2O5) ranged from 98 to 56 percent. Liberation was essentially complete at 28 mesh, and recoveries tended to drop when overgrinding occurred.

Jan 1, 1966

By J. M. Gomes

The Bureau of Mines, as part of an effort to maximize minerals and metals recovery from domestic resources, has investigated the feasibility of recovering heavy minerals as byproducts from sand and gravel, placer gold, and industrial mineral operations in northern California. Sand samples from about 50 locations were treated by gravity separation to yield heavy-mineral concentrates (black sands). Mineral compositions of the concentrates were determined by chemical analysis and mineralogical examination. Individual zircon, ilmenite, magnetite, platinum-group metals, thoria, and silica products were prepared from heavy-mineral concentrates by selective separation using low-and high-intensity magnetic, high-tension, and flotation equipment.

Jan 1, 1979

By J. H. Jacobs

The first authorization, in November 1940, was for a plant of only several hundred pounds capacity at Boulder City, Nev. Improvements in the process and subsequent additions to some sections have enabled the plant to produce more than 2,000 pounds of manganese per day for substantial periods. By the time pilot-plant operations were suspended in June 1945, over 1,500,000 pounds of metal had been produced. The future of electrolytic manganese production obviously depends not only on satisfactory development of methods but on availability of raw material and demonstration of valuable uses. Investigations of manganese-ore deposits in this country, made since 1938 by the Bureau of Mines, have revealed large amounts of ore suitable for making electrolytic manganese. At first the pilot plant was operated on ore from the Three Kids mine near Las Vegas, Nev. After practical features of the process had been worked out, other ores from throughout the United States were tested in the pilot plant. The purpose of this paper is to compare the results obtained on the following ores: Three Kids; Ladd mine, Tracy, Calif.; Chamberlain, S. Dak., nodules; and ore from Metals Reserve stockpiles at Deming, N. Mex.; Cushman, Ark.; and Philipsburg, Mont.

Dec 1, 1947

By B. P. Martinez

This report presents the results of a research and development program in recovering waste-rolling oils conducted by the Bethlehem Steel Co., before 1954 at its Sparrows Point plant, Sparrow Point, Md., with the cooperation of the Bureau of Mines, U. S. Department of the Interior, College Park, Md. The objective of the program was twofold: First, to recover oil for reuse in the plant; and second, to stop pollution, by oil, of the stream and harbor areas in the immediate vicinity of the plant. The sequence of the investigations was laboratory and pilot plant studies on sedimentation, simple aeration, and flotation for the separation of oil and water; and construction of a production unit using standard flotation equipment. This work was only preliminary for the Bethlehem Steel Co. and it has continued research on this problem. Recent progress indicates that new, improved processes will soon replace the flotation units described in this report. The first efforts to separate oil and water by simple sedimentation were unsuccessful. To establish the cause of this failure, microscope examinations and measurements were made on cold-reduction rolling mill cooling-water effluents containing oil in suspension. It was discovered that an average oil globule, held in suspension, was only 0.001 inch in diameter and would not coagulate with other globules for normal sedimentation at room temperature. The next step in the sequence of studies was to coagulate the oil suspension by simple aeration with air under slight pressure. The aeration methods studied were effective in removing up to 68 percent of the total oil but were approaching flotation in principle. The final investigation of the series was flotation of the oil in conventional laboratory-size flotation cells. The small-bubble method, without reagents, floated up to 89 percent of the total oil held in suspension and was the process selected for pilot-plant development.

Jan 1, 1959

By S. R. B. Cooke, F. D. DeVaney

"INTRODUCTION The potash mineral receiving the most attention in the newly discovered. New Mexico-Texas potash district near Carlsbad, N. M. is sylvite (potassium chloride). Sylvite contains more potassium than any other mineral. Merchantable high-grade deposits have been found, and those of lower grade may be enriched to a high degree of purity by refining methods. Deposits containing sylvite were the first to be developed and axe the only ones being mined.However, many other minerals that contain potash occur in the salt beds of the Carlsbad District. Of these the more important are polyhalite, carnallite, langbeinite, leonite, and kainite. The nature of the deposits and their mineralogy have been described in detail by members of the United States Geological Survey. 4/Langbeinite, although not so abundant in these deposits as carnallite and has particular interest because the potash is in the form of the sulphate and as such commands a premium in terms of K20 unit. This is explained by Fox and Turrentine 5/, who state:"

Feb 1, 1936

By Eric R. Bauer

This U.S. Bureau of Mines study was conducted to gain a basis for recommending methods to predict and prevent the occurrence of cutter roof failure, a common ground control problem in mines of the Northern Appalachian Coal Basin. This was accomplished by determining the geologic and engineering factors responsible for cutter development at six mines affected by cutter roof failure. Three distinct factors were found to be initiators of cutter roof failure: (1) high horizontal roof stress, (2) surface topographic variations, and (3) geologic anomalies. Effective control of cutter roof was obtained through improved bolting techniques, entry and mine reorientation, and entry and pillar size modifications, but only when selected based on the actual cause of failure.

Jan 1, 1990

Several short color films describing new technology developed through Bureau of Mines research are available on a loan basis. The films review results of Bureau research programs aimed at aiding the minerals industry by increasing mine productivity, ensuring worker health and safety, and enhancing minerals recovery, processing and recycling. Most of the films are available in a choice of for mats: 16mm film, ½" VHS cassette tape, or ¾" U-matic tape. The films are loaned by the Bureau of Mines free of charge; borrowers are requested to pay only the return postage and for any damage to the films. All titles are also available for purchase in 16mm or videotape formats. Interested persons wishing to borrow or purchase a film should specify its title and the preferred and alternate showing dates. All requests should be addressed to: Motion Picture Library Bureau of Mines Cochrans Mill Road P.O. Box 18070 Pittsburgh, PA 15236 A short description of each film follows: Safer Coal Mining Equipment Traces the development of modified conventional and continuous mining equipment, beginning with an investigation of the problems encountered with mining equipment and continuing through long-term testing of the modified equipment in two mines. "Human engineered" coal mining machines are shown in operation. These machines include features such as adjustable cabs, easy access controls, improved illumination, and other safety improvements. (19 min)

Jan 1, 1986