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By M. W. Von Bernewitz

Fay's glossary3/ of terms contains the following definition of "black sand": Heavy grains of various minerals which have a dark color and. are usually found accompanying gold in alluvial deposits, for example, magnetite, chromite, ilmenite, cassiterite, tourmaline, and others. The Bureau of Mines is issuing this report in answer to the many inquiries from individuals and firms as to how they may treat or sell the heavy black sands that accumulate in the sluice boxes of beach and river placering and to warn such individuals and firms against becoming too enthusiastic over the chances of striking it rich. For a half century or longer much money, energy, and time have been wasted in devising, building, and trying numerous machines to recover gold and platinum, also gem stones, from sand that generally has not been worth the effort. Volumes have been written on the subject, and thousands of letters of inquiry have been received by agencies of the State and Federal Governments. The demand for information has been so great that all of the Bureau's publications dealing wholly or partly with black sands are out of print. They are listed at the end of this report.

Jan 1, 1938

By C. A. Rhoades

The spillage that accumulates under conveyor belt lines presents a possible fire and explosion hazard fomiinqjetsoruiel, especially to those who must clean up the spillage. The U.S. Bureau of Mines conducted research to reduce this hazard by identifying and investigating the parameters affecting the efficiency of conveyor belt cleaning. The amount of material carried back under the conveyor and the wear rates of metal cleaning blades decreased with increasing blade-to-belt pressure to a limiting value, after which the carryback and wear rates remained essentially constant. The optimum blade-to-belt pressure was found to be 11 to 14 psi for the research conveyor system. Greater pressures increased the blade-belt friction without improving either cleaning or blade life. The modes of blade wear were three-body abrasion and slurry erosion caused by the sand-lime test mixture. Wear rates were reduced by increasing the metal hardness, opti-mizing the pressure, and removing conveyor belt imperfections. Corrosion was not observed to affect the wear of various steels in tests of less than 34 h. The results of this study should allow mine operators to run their conveyors under conditions that will maximize cleaning and minimize equipment wear.

Jan 1, 1989

By Joseph M. Singer

This research project had two main objectives: (1) To identify the smoke limits of gaseous fuel-air mixtures and (2) to obtain and evaluate basic chemical information on the formation of smoke in very rich flames near the smoke limit. Such information would do much to establish the circumstances for car-bon deposition in gas appliances and in other types of combustors. Based on tests with ethylene and propane, these studies showed the following: 1. Smoke limits are related to the yellow-tip limits of the fuel. Previous research established sufficient data to permit prediction of yellow-tip limits on gas burners using a wide variety of fuels. The present study of smoke limits deals only with ethylene-air flames, but the concept that was developed is probably applicable to other fuels.

Jan 1, 1962

By Gary E. Sherman

This report presents a Bureau of Mines study on the cost of mine permitting and compliance with environmental regulations in Alaska. It discusses permitting requirements and procedures for placer and lode mines. Placer miners must comply with recently established (1988) water quality regulations and effluent treatment requirements. To estimate the impact differing treatment options (no recycle, 100% recycling, and flocculation) have on a placer mine's rate of return, three models (1,500, 1,000, and 500 yd3/d) were simulated. Rates of return for these models show a marked decrease as effluent treatment is increased. The incremental increase in operating cost from one treatment option to the next is relatively small; however the opportunity cost of lost production if' significant and accounts for the decreasing rate of return with increased effluent treatment. Lode mines face greater costs for permitting and compliance than similarly sized placer mines as a result of the impact of the operation. Direct permitting costs for lode mines range from 2 to 6% of total project cost, with 4% the most common figure cited by industry. Total costs for permitting and compliance are approximately double those for permitting. Indirect costs associated with compliance include mitigation, monitoring, and reclamation.

Jan 1, 1991

The Objective: To reduce the noise generated by the exhausting air from a pneumatic roof bolting drill to a maximum of 90 decibels. Any attachment used for this purpose must be lightweight and must not cause a significant increase in back pressure. The Approach: Absorb the noise with a properly designed muffler that will permit sufficient airflow without affecting the normal operation of the drill. How It Works: The air exhausted by the drill enters the muffler through perforated disks into a resonator chamber. It then passes through a series of expansion and contraction chambers and is expelled to the atmosphere through another perforated disk. The basic muffler design for the pneumatic drill was established by using both digital computer analysis and experimentally simulated noise tests. The measured parameters used in the computer program consisted of inlet and outlet pressures, temperatures, airflows and exhaust areas. United

By Thomas Varley

During the past few years, since flotation has become the paramount treatment method for most all kinds of ores, the Bureau has gathered the data on consumption of reagents used in the flotation treatment. The first report was issued in 1916. A brief review of such reports snows the progress made in the art of flotation, and each year brings forth the development of new reagent a or combinations of reagents that seem sure to survive, but research and progress spell their defeat, if not by entire elimination, at least subjects them to considerable modification.

Jan 1, 1928

By Robert L. Lagace

This final report documents the work done by Arthur D. Little, Inc. (ADL) on behalf of the U.S. Bureau of Mines, Pittsburgh Mining and Safety Research Center (PMSRC), on Contract R0122026 (which began in August of 1971). Under this contract ADI provided technical assistance to the Bureau on a task basis on virtually all aspects of the Bureau's programs related to present and planned emergency and operational communications and miner location systems for underground coal mines. The work consisted of independent investigations, analyses, experiments, breadboard and prototype hardware development, workshops and technology transfer seminars on mine communications, and on-going evaluations and guidance related to the Bureau's contracted programs on electromagnetic noise, mine communications systems, and trapped miner location. This final report documents the work in two volumes, Volume I, "Emergency and Operational Mine Communications," and Volume II, "Seismic Detection and Location of Isolated Miners." The Tables of Contents of both Volumes are included in each Volume. Phase I of the contract was devoted to performing an in-depth assessment of electromagnetic noise measurements taken by several contractors and other investigators, and then defining a new noise measurement program and instrumentation system tailored to obtain the necessary but missing noise data. These data are required for use in the design of new emergency and operational communication systems. This work, and the follow-on coordination and guidance activities of ADL on this noise measurement program in subsequent phases of the contract, are treated in Part One of Volume I.

Jan 1, 1974

By Keith A. Heasley, John L. Ellenberger, Paul W. Jeran

In this paper, a state-of-the-art, three-dimensional, full waveform, microseismic system was used to analyze the rock failure around a deep (> 750 m (2500 ft) of cover) bump-prone longwall panel. The microseismic system consisted of both underground and surface geophones coupled through radio telemetry and a fiber-optic network to produce pseudo real-time detection and location of seismic events surrounding the coal seam. This was the first microseismic installation of this scope at a U.S. coal mine, and the system was intended to help determine the exact strata mechanics associated with the redistribution of stress and the associated gob formation at one of the U.S.’s deepest longwall mines. Overall, 5,000 calibrated seismic events were recorded during the mining of one panel, including a Richter magnitude 4.2 event which occurred inside of the array. Analysis of these events provides a number of notable insights into the rock mass behavior. For instance, the longwall panel was widened during the retreat process, and the mining-induced seismicity shows a distinctly different behavior between the start of the panel, the mining of the narrow part of the panel and the mining of the wider part of the panel. Also, in itself, the acquisition of the ML 4.2 event was a major milestone in geomechanical and bump research. This is the first time that such an event has been recorded with this detail and accuracy at a bump-prone coal mine in the U.S. The analysis of this single event has set distinct new limits on the relationship between mining seismicity and coal bumps.

By John H. Johnson

Diesel tailpipe CO, C02, NO, and N02 concentrations by the Emissions Measurement Apparatus (EMA) were found to compare satisfactorily with simultaneous concentrations by instruments in the MSHA engine certification laboratory in Bruceton, Pa. The EMA was then applied to the measurement of LHD vehicle diesel tailpipe gases and smoke opacity in the White Pine and Brushy Creek Mines. A general experimental approach was developed by which instruments could be compared for the measurement of diesel exhaust pollutant concentrations in the 1/2 to 5TLV range. The concentrations are changed by varying engine speed, dynamometer load, and the portion of the exhaust which enters the dilution tunnel. Dräger detector tube diluted exhaust CO, CO2, NO, and NO2 measurements were compared with simultaneously taken portable instrument measurements. Diesel exhaust interference inaccuracies were separated from inaccuracies due to detector tube calibration by comparing the instrument readings with both actual detector tube readings and detector tube readings corrected by recalibration of the detector tubes alongside NBS traceable calibration gases. The detector tubes' accuracy was found to be only slightly affected by diesel exhaust interferences and it was concluded that most measure within certification limits established by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. The effects of 2 exhaust system configurations on the pollutant concentrations in a dead-end heading were studied. Both of the configurations exhausted the gases near the roof, directing them toward the crosscut, and both improved the stratification of the air in the heading, due to the bouyancy of the hot exhaust gases. One of the configurations was a pair of Fume Diluters which diluted the exhaust with air by a 10:1 ratio, and the second system was simply a pair of exhaust pipes, bent to direct the exhaust similarly to the fume dilutors. By redirecting the exhaust, the concentration of C02 measured on the LHD vehicle was reduced by as much as 507, in dead-end headings up to 200 ft long. The Fume Diluters showed no improvement over the simple redesign of the exhaust system.

Jan 1, 1980

The U.S. Code of Federal Regulations (Title 30) requires that a methane monitor be placed on every mining machine to continuously observe and record methane levels at the face. The monitor must provide a warning whenever methane levels are 1.0 percent or higher. An effective monitoring system will indicate a methane concentration of 1.0 percent on the mining machine before methane levels at the mining face reach 5.0 percent. Where the methane monitor is located on the mining machine is one of the most important factors that determines how effectively face methane levels can be predicted. Any change in the sampling location will result in a change in measured methane concentration. To protect the methanometer, it is usually located on the cutting boom at least 1 to 1.8 m (3 to 6 ft) outby the front cutting bits. A face ventilation system using blowing tubing was simulated in a full-scale test facility. Methane released from the face area was monitored at multiple locations on a model mining machine as well as locations near the face. Based on the relationship between concentrations measured on the machine and at the face, criteria were developed for selecting the best machine locations for monitoring methane. Recommendations are given for revising methane action levels for alternative sampling locations.

By L. Nahai

Iran's petroleum industry is nearly 50 years old and the oldest in the Near East. According to published figures, Iran ranks third in production and reserves in the Near East. These reserves (including probable reserves) are estimated at 35 billion barrels and constitute about 11 percent of the world's total. Iran is the sixth largest producer of crude petroleum in the world. The 1961 output of more than 430 million barrels was 5 percent of total world output for the year. In the same year, Iran ranked fourth among world petroleum exporters, providing 8.4 percent of total world exports.

Jan 1, 1963

By Pakalnis Rimas, Lyndon Clark, Tom Brady

A major focus of ground control research presently being conducted by the Spokane Research Laboratory of the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) is to incorporate data on weak rock masses into existing design relationships, with an emphasis on updating the span design curve for manned entries and the overbreak curve for longhole entries. Both curves were originally developed at the University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC. The original database has been augmented by information from mines throughout the United States, Canada, Australia, and Europe. The common factor in all these mines is the presence of a weak back and/or walls. In most cases, the ore zone is the weakest rock unit and must be stabilized so that the mineral-bearing rock can be extracted safety. The current NIOSH research attempts to provide rock mechanics tools to assist a mine operator in making economic decisions that will also ensure a safe working environment. This paper documents the Nevada database with a special emphasis on Nevada underground gold mines.

By Paul M. Buttermore

As part of a national canvass of water use the Bureau of Mines compiled data on water requirements in the petroleum and natural gas industries for the calendar year 1962, specifically in well drilling, secondary-recovery operations, and natural gas processing plants. Total new water use in the petroleum industry of the United States, excluding refining, was 5.3 billion barrels. Secondary-recovery operations and natural gas processing plants required about 2.5 billion barrels of new water input; each of these requirements was about eight times greater than that for well drilling. Total use, including recirculated water, was 45.3 billion barrels of which 3.4 billion barrels was consumed. The greatest use of recirculated water was for natural gas processing, amounting to 38.2 billion barrels. Projections of total water use show that by 1975, 75.4 billion barrels will be used by the petroleum industry, of which 10.2 billion barrels will be new water. By 1985, the total use requirement will be 92.8 billion barrels, of which 13.1 billion barrels will be new water.

Jan 1, 1966

By Paul M. Buttermore

As part of a national canvass of water use the Bureau of Mines compiled data on water requirements in the petroleum and natural gas industries for the calendar year 1962, specifically in well drilling, secondary-recovery operations, and natural gas processing plants. Total new water use in the petroleum industry of the United States, excluding refining, was 5.3 billion barrels. Secondary-recovery operations and natural gas processing plants required about 2.5 billion barrels of new water input; each of these requirements was about eight times greater than that for well drilling. Total use, including recirculated water, was 45.3 billion barrels of which 3.4 billion barrels was consumed. The greatest use of recirculated water was for natural gas processing, amounting to 38.2 billion barrels. Projections of total water use show that by 1975, 75.4 billion barrels will be used by the petroleum industry, of which 10.2 billion barrels will be new water. By 1985, the total use requirement will be 92.8 billion barrels, of which 13.1 billion barrels will be new water.

Jan 1, 1966

By P. G. Pigott

This Bureau of Mines laboratory research demonstrated that building bricks meeting ASTM specification C62-66 for grades SW and MW of FBS-type bricks can be produced from waste copper mill tailings. Waste tailings from accumulations at Magna, Utah, Anaconda, Mont., and Hayden, Miami, and San Manuel, Ariz., were dry-pressed into bricks, and the products were tested in accordance with ASTM Designation C67-66 on sampling, and testing of brick. An evaluation derived from pilot-plant production of similar brick at the Coal Research Bureau of West Virginia University indicated the production cost to be about $34 per 1,000 bricks. Utilization of such mill tailings on a commercial scale would eliminate the need for digging new pits for brick raw material production, conserve natural resources, and simultaneously remove potential sources of air pollution.

Jan 1, 1971

Underground coal mining continues to evolve in the U.S., and more reserves are being mined under deeper cover, with worse roof, or with interactions from previous workings. At the same time, the mining community is responding to higher safety standards and intense competitive pressures. The need for effective ground control design has never been greater. Ground control safety issues that have been addressed by recent the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) research include: Improving roof support performance; Maintaining safe tailgate escapeways from longwalls; Optimizing pillar design for retreat mining; Controlling multiple seam interactions; Predicting roof conditions during extended cuts, and; Preventing massive pillar collapses. As funding from both government and the private sector has diminished, the emphasis in research has focused on providing the mining community with practical techniques for improved ground control design. Many projects have successfully employed empirical methods that emphasize the statistical analysis of case histories from underground mines. Other projects have employed numerical models and large-scale laboratory testing of roof support elements. Using these data, NIOSH has developed an entire toolbox of computer programs that have been effectively transferred to the mining community.

By Deno Pappas, Chrisropher Mark, John Rusnak, Linda McWilliams

Mine planning for a new reserve is based on information obtained from exploratory coreholes. A critical component of an exploration program is the geotechnical evaluation. Poor assumptions about roof conditions greatly add to the risks of mining. Rock mechanics testing is central to a geotechnical exploration program. Typically, 3 to 5 uniaxial compressive strength (UCS) tests are made to characterize a particular roof unit at a given corehole. The average (mean) of these tests is taken as “The UCS” for that location. Isopach contour maps are then used to show spatial trends in roof strength. Two issues are raised by this traditional approach. The first is due to the large variability in UCS values that is typical even within a single unit from a single hole. The average UCS might be higher at Corehole A than it is at Corehole B, but the difference may not be statistically significant. The second issue is whether widely spaced coreholes can identify valid spatial trends in rock strength. The answer depends upon whether rock strength changes over distances that are longer or shorter than the corehole spacing. This is a classical geostatistical problem. While geostatics have been used to investigate many coal quality parameters, they have seldom been used to evaluate rock strength. This paper describes an extensive investigation of these issues conducted by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) in collaboration with Peabody Energy. The study employed the Peabody Rock Mechanics Data Base which contains more than 10,000 individual test results. Data from four important roof units were subjected to statistical analysis: • Brereton Limestone above the Herrin 6 seam (Illinois) • Turner Mine Shale above the No. 9 Seam (Kentucky) • Sandstone above the Eagle Coal (West Virginia) • Shale above the Eagle Coal (West Virginia) The study did not find significant spatial trends in rock strength in any of the cases. Perhaps there are none, or perhaps the exploration coreholes were just too far apart to see them. These results have valuable implications for the design of geotechical exploration programs.

By Rudolf E. Greuer

Two computer programs for the real-time calculation of concentration distributions in the ventilation system of underground mines were designed. They allow one to simulate the movement of fumes or other contaminants with the ventilating air, the calculation of concentrations at any given point and time, and the determination of the total contaminant exposure at different places in the mine. Multiple and time variable contaminant sources can be handled and recirculation is no obstacle. The, first program is based on an airflow distribution which has, in the input data, to be stated. The second program has been linked to in existing program for the calculation of airflow distributions. Two versions of this second program are provided to accommodate the two existing programs. Several executed examples demonstrate the program performance.

Jan 1, 1981

By W. C. Blanchard

Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR) is a remote sensing technique using active backscatter. This technique is applicable to the testing for faults and multiple partial faults on cable. The battery operated hardware developed on this con¬tract has tailored this technique for testing of mining equipment trailing electrical cables. The processing of-t-he back-scatter is accomplished using a microprocessor. The visual output from the hardware to the operator is; the type, magnitude and distance to the cable fault in a numerical format. This greatly simplifys the use of this techniques for the operator.

Jan 1, 1980

Severe whipping of shuttle car trailing cables occurs when the car stops suddenly or reverses direction. This causes cable damage, and can seriously injure personnel near the cable. FMC has contracted with the U.S. Bureau of Mines to design, build and demonstrate a reel control system that will significantly reduce or eliminate whipping. II. CONCLUSIONS Results of engineering effort show that the following conditions are primarily responsible for the whipping problem. Causes may exist individually, or in combination.

Jan 1, 1972