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By Gustav Werner, Leonard Greenburg, William B. Harris

Haulage in tunneling operations generally has been done with electric locomotives. As a rule, on short hauls the source of electricity is a storage battery mounted on the locomotive, which, of course, must be removed and recharged periodically. Where the distance from the recharging point to the tunnel face is very long, and where loads are heavy, trolley-driven locomotives are used. Diesel engines have been used in mining and tunneling operations in Europe for a number of years. The recent reports of studies in Belgium1 and by the Bureau of Mines in this country2-4 have indicated the potentialities of this form of power for haulage, mucking, bulldozing and many other underground operations. The hazards attending the use of Diesel engines in more or less closed spaces have long been known. The exhaust constituents that may create a harmful or objectionable environment are carbon monoxide, oxides of nitrogen and sulphur, carbon dioxide, aldehydes and smoke. Lack of precise information regarding the concentration of these gases and the ventilation requirements to reduce them to safe levels has to some extent suppressed their general acceptance in tunneling and mining work. Not until the work of the Bureau of Mines referred to above, and certain experience gained in the construction of the Delaware Aqueduct, ‡ has there been available the requisite information regarding the conditions under which their use may be permitted. This paper concerns itself with the successful operation of Diesel engines underground in the construction of certain parts of the Delaware Aqueduct, and describes the conditions under which Diesel engines have been found to operate with a minimum production of noxious gases. The test data reported were obtained during the operation of Diesel engines over a period of two years.* Studies by the New York State Department or Labor Exhaustive tests were made by the Division of Industrial Hygiene, of the composition of the exhaust gases given off by a Diesel engine mounted on a test block. These tests showed that certain' quantities of the gases are discharged from the exhaust. On the basis of these figures, preliminary requirements of design and control

Jan 1, 1943

By L. C. Uren

Some of US have been impressed with the need for a better understanding of the future place of the engineer in the petroleum industry. In academic work we are continually asked to advise students as to the opportunities in different directions, to guide them in their selection of professions, and it would be extremely helpful to those in academic lines of work to have the opinion of engineers from the industry relative to the need for petroleum engineers. IS the industry going to require a continually growing number of engineers in the future years, or have we perhaps reached equilibrium in that regard ? In anticipation of this meeting, I undertook to canvass opinion among a number of engineers of my acquaintance and I have been rather astonished to learn that the expenditure on engineering salaries in the producing branch of the oil industry is extremely low. I have figures from eight or 10 of the larger oil companies and it seems to be a fair statement on the basis of these figures to say that the average American oil company is devoting less than 2 per cent. of its gross expenditures in oil production to the payment of engineering salaries. A few examples will be of interest. I shall not mention names of individual companies, but one large Mid-Continent company is spending slightly less than 1 per cent. of its gross expenditure—that is, less than 1 per cent. of the total expenditure in the producing department—on engineering salaries and about as much on engineering research, which might properly be regarded as a phase of its engineering work. Another Mid-Continent company is spending about 11/4 per cent. on engineering salaries. A large California company is spending about l1/2 per cent. The largest figure that has come to my attention is that of an important Rocky Mountain and Mid-Continent company that is spending a little more than 6 per cent., but that is apparently an extreme case. The petroleum producing industry is a highly technical business in these days. It is spending in excess of $500,000,000 annually in new

Jan 1, 1929

By J. J. Tietjen, D. Richman

Single-crystal Gap lms been epitaxially grow from the vapor phase at a rate oJ 3 p per nzin without encountering a7Zy low-ang-le grain boundaries or debwading- the electrical properties of the material. This growth rate exceeds any value previol~sly reported for the vapor phase growth of Gap. In pure material, mObilities ns high as 175 sq cm per U-sec at room tenzperature and 1450 sq cm per v-sec at 77°K have been obtained. These values are anLong the highest that have been attai)led for this material. For the first time, Gap possesses a number of important properties which make it well-suited for use in electro-optic modulators. First, the transverse electro-optic effect is operable in this material, which makes it possible to increase the path length of the modulated iron doping of Gap has been achieved; this results i?z resistivities of approximately 10" ohm-cm. The problelrls of residual strain and isolated shorting paths in these crystals have been partially solved. Electro-optic modulation of visible radiation has been demonstrated with this material. It is anticipated that further improvement with regard to the probleins of strain and shorting paths will result in a practical Gap electro-optic modulator. radiation without increasing the applied voltage. In addition, this permits the use of thin crystals so that relatively small voltages are needed to provide the requisite high electric fields. Second, GaP is a cubic crystal and therefore does not introduce critical optical-alignment problems associated with birefrin-gent crystals, such as ammonium dihydrogen phosphate (ADP), and potassium dihydrogen phosphate

Jan 1, 1968

By Francis Donaldson

The direct injection of cement grout into water-bearing fissures as a means of checking or stopping the flow of water into shafts and tunnels has been experimented with for a decade or longer and seems to have been first attempted in Europe. The earliest application of which the writer has found a record was at a shaft sunk by the Mining Society of Lens; this is described by C. Dinoire in the Transactions of the Institution of Mining Engineers.1 It is only lately, however, that the process has been entirely successful. This success has been accomplished on the Catskill Aqueduct, now under construction by the city of New York. This aqueduct includes a number of deep pressure tunnels, reached by shafts for both waterway and construction purposes. In portions of these shafts and tunnels considerable underground water was met. The contract for the first of these deep pressure tunnels was let to the T. A. Gillespie Co.; this section is known as the Rondout Siphon. It leads under the Rondout valley at a depth of from 400 to 800 ft. and is about 5 miles long. The engineers expected that considerable water would be encountered, but fortunately this was not the case except at one shaft, known as No. 4, which penetrated the rock at a junction between limestone and conglomerate. Water-bearing fissures were encountered almost immediately. At a depth of about 200 ft. a flow of 1,500 gal. per minute was struck. The. shaft then contained as many pumps as could be used, and it seemed impossible to sink it further. After vain efforts had been made to proceed, John P. Hogan, a division engineer of the Board of Water Supply, suggested that cementation of the fissures be tried. The process was attempted for the first time in this country. Since the shaft was partly full of water it was necessary to drill grout holes with a diamond drill. Platforms were placed on the timbers at the water level, the diamond drill was installed and six 90-ft. holes were drilled in the bottom of the shaft. Several car loads of cement were pumped through these holes into the fissures, the drill casings being used for grout pipes. This largely cut off the flow of water from, the bottom and sinking could then

Jan 1, 1915

By C. W. Mason

TIN has long been cited as offering a classic example of polymorphism, second in repute only to the allotropy of sulphur. The notorious "tin disease," which Cohen1 has studied so exhaustively in terms of the enantiotropic transformation of tetragonal white 0 tin to cubic gray a tin, has apparently encouraged the expectation that one or more addi-tional polymorphic modifications might exist. The search for confirma-tion of this idea has, as might be anticipated, led to the accumulation of a body of miscellaneous evidence, much of which would probably never have been sought, or taken seriously even by its discoverers, but for previous assumptions. The ball apparently was started rolling in 1880 by Trechmann,' who reported a new modification of tin (y tin), which was brittle and found in "hard head," a highly arsenical, slaggy material produced in a certain stage of tin smelting. A mixture of two kinds of crystals was obtained from a Cornish tin furnace, and those thought to be y tin were studied crystallographically. The results indicated that these crystals were rhombic and of different density from the tetragonal tin prepared electrolytically by Miller.3 Their analysis was given as 98.7 per cent Sn, 1.3 per cent Fe, and traces of As, Sb, Bi and S. In 1881 von Foullon4 obtained similar crystals from a Bohemian tin furnace. Headden5 examined crystals similar to those of Trechmann and von Foullon and reported them to be monoclinic, but of analysis corresponding to stannous sulphide. Later, Stevanovic,6 by goniometric measurements, proved that these crystals of SnS were really rhombic. Groth7 pictures and describes both "rhombic tin" (Fig. 9, vol. 1) and stannous sulphide (Fig. 84, vol. 1); their faces and angles correspond within the accuracy of measurement. Spencer3 in 1921 examined the above evidence critically; he found similar crystals from Cornish tin furnaces, proved them to be SnS, and even was able to analyze some of Trechmann's original specimens, finding high sulphur content. (Apparently Trechmann's analysis had been based on a second lot of crystals, not described crystallographically.)

Jan 1, 1939

By Carl Henrich

In the winter of 1895 to 1896, during the construction of the Jackson and Cincinnati railroad, running from Addison, Lenawee county, Mich., to Jackson, Mich., in a northerly direction, I had occasion to observe some interesting geological features, described below, in a cut of this railroad made through the low ridge of gravel and sand, dividing the valley of Silver Lake and Silver Creek from the Goose Lake and Goose Creek valley, in Lenawee county. The surface-deposits of this part of the county are, as is well known, of glacial origin. Gently rounded, long ridges of sand, gravel and clay intervene between the marshy bottoms and the lakes of the valleys. The nature of the deposits, varying from a sandy clay or clayey sand to fine and coarse gravel and pure siliceous sand on the one hand, and to a very tough, fine, uniform and often indurated clay on the other, as well as the irregular and sudden changes, sharply divided, between these materials composing the ridges, in the cuts made through them by the railroad, would admit of no doubt that this country owes its present surface-configuration primarily to the action of the last glacial period, which covered its surface with an immense ice-sheet. The well-known ice-markings on the huge granite, schist, greenstone and conglomerate boulders found everywhere imbedded and protruding from the surface, add their testimony to the other characteristics mentioned. Most of the cuts made by the railway through the ridges showed in a marked degree the irregular arrangement and the sudden changes of and between the materials mentioned above. One cut, however, known as Kelly's cut, or Kelly's gravelpit, about 4 1/2 miles north of Addison, and about 1 1/2 miles south

Jan 1, 1897

By Charles Legrand

The power plant of the Burro Mountain Copper Co. is located near Tyrone, N. M., at 5,950 ft, elevation. It is interesting because it uses the largest stationary Diesel engines in the United States. The general layout of the plant is shown in Figs. 1 and 2. The building is of steel-frame construction with hollow-tile walls and corrugated-iron roof; the floor is concrete and all windows have steel frames, making a fireproof building. The building is made to accommodate one more electric generator unit, which is being installed; also two 4,000-cu. ft. air compressors direct-connected to three-cylinder engines with the same size cylinders as the electric units. The power plant consists of two 815-kva., 60-cycle, three-phase, 6,600-volt, 180-r.p.m. generators, direct-connected to five-cylinder, two-cycle Diesel engines; the necessary circulating pumps for cooling water, cooling towers and oil storage tanks. A portion of the power is used in the same building as the generating units to run one of two 200-kw. rotary converters delivering 260-volt direct current, and a 2,500-cu. ft. air compressor, delivering air at 95 1b.-pressure, direct-connected to a 400-hp., 6,600-volt, three-phase synchronous motor. The remainder of the power is used to run a 1,500-ton concentrating mill 3 1/2 miles from the power house, various hoists, pumps and motors about the mines and the lighting and water-works of the town of Tyrone. The direct current is used for electric traction in the mine, also to run hoists and motors that were installed before the new power plant was built. Due to the large hoists that take starting peaks of 250 kw. and the 10-ton electric locomotive that takes at times 150 kw., the load is extremely variable, as shown in Fig. 3. The two five-cylinder vertical Diesel engines, which are rated at 1,250 b.hp. at sea level, have cylinders of 525-mm. diameter (20.6 in.) and

Jan 1, 1917

By T. B. Counselman

AFTER several years study, the Universal Atlas Cement Co. decided to rebuild its plant at Leeds, Alabama. The entire old plant, which was to operate during the new construction, was then to be scrapped with the exception of two kilns. The quarry was to be mechanized, new and larger kilns installed, with the most modern type of equipment all through the plant. Raw grinding operations at all of the Universal Atlas plants were dry. However, the dust hazard of this operation and the growing emphasis on occupational diseases made wet grinding attractive. Coal at Leeds is cheap, so that a slightly higher coal practice was unimportant. Power was cheap, so that waste-heat boilers were not desirable. Since new kilns were to be installed, these could be made long enough to make filters unnecessary. Wet raw grinding could be either the old practice of open-circuit compartment mills or closed-circuit grinding in accordance with metallurgical practice. The latter saved power and steel wear and saved initial investment. This had been demonstrated in cement plants. Also, the elimination of tramp oversize was a most important advantage. Ease of chemical control was another factor. Blending in the thickener, with elimination of slurry mixers had been found practicable. Therefore, if wet raw grinding were used at all, the advantages were clearly in favor of closed-circuit grinding. Detailed layouts of the most modern possible closed-circuit dry-grinding plant and of a closed-circuit wet-grinding plant were prepared, and careful estimates were made of initial investment and operating costs. Full consideration of all the factors involved resulted in a decision to install wet closed-circuit grinding. The capacity of the new kilns was established at 4000 bbl. per day. Two new kilns were installed, each with a capacity of 80 bbl. per hour. Since 625 lb. of raw material is required to make a barrel of finished cement, the capacity of the grinding plant for the new kilns had to average only 1250 tons per day. Sufficient additional grinding capacity had to be provided for the two remaining old kilns, or their possible replacement by a third new kiln. The grinding rate, therefore, was set at 90 tons per

Jan 1, 1939

By T. B. Counselman

AfteR several years study, the Universal Atlas Cement Co. decided to rebuild its plant at Leeds, Alabama. The entire old plant, which was to operate during the new construction, was then to be scrapped with the exception of two kilns. The quarry was to be mechanized, new and larger kilns installed, with the most modern type of equipment all through the plant. Raw grinding operations at all of the Universal Atlas plants were dry. However, the dust hazard of this operation and the growing emphasis on occupational diseases made wet grinding attractive. Coal at Leeds is cheap, so that a slightly higher coal practice was unimportant. Power was cheap, so that waste-heat boilers were not desirable. Since new kilns were to be installed, these could be made long enough to make filters unnecessary. Wet raw grinding could be either the old practice of open-circuit compartment mills or closed-circuit grinding in accordance with metal-lurgical practice. The latter saved power and steel wear and saved initial investment. This had been demonstrated in cement plants. Also, the elimination of tramp oversize was a most important advantage. Ease of chemical control was another factor. Blending in the thickener, with elimination of slurry mixers had been found practicable. Therefore, if wet raw grinding were used at all, the advantages were clearly in favor of closed-circuit grinding. Detailed layouts of the most modern possible closed-circuit dry-grinding plant and of a closed-circuit wet-grinding plant were prepared, and careful estimates were made of initial investment and operating costs. Full consideration of all the factors involved resulted in a decision to install wet closed-circuit grinding. The capacity of the new kilns was established at 4000 bbl. per day. Two new kilns were installed, each with a capacity of 80 bbl. per hour. Since 625 lb. of raw material is required to make a barrel of finished cement, the capacity of the grinding plant for the new kilns had to average only 1250 tons per day. Sufficient additional grinding capacity had to be provided for the two remaining old kilns, or their possible replacement by a third new kiln. The grinding rate, therefore, was set at 90 tons per

Jan 1, 1939

By T. B. Counselman

AfteR several years study, the Universal Atlas Cement Co. decided to rebuild its plant at Leeds, Alabama. The entire old plant, which was to operate during the new construction, was then to be scrapped with the exception of two kilns. The quarry was to be mechanized, new and larger kilns installed, with the most modern type of equipment all through the plant. Raw grinding operations at all of the Universal Atlas plants were dry. However, the dust hazard of this operation and the growing emphasis on occupational diseases made wet grinding attractive. Coal at Leeds is cheap, so that a slightly higher coal practice was unimportant. Power was cheap, so that waste-heat boilers were not desirable. Since new kilns were to be installed, these could be made long enough to make filters unnecessary. Wet raw grinding could be either the old practice of open-circuit compartment mills or closed-circuit grinding in accordance with metal-lurgical practice. The latter saved power and steel wear and saved initial investment. This had been demonstrated in cement plants. Also, the elimination of tramp oversize was a most important advantage. Ease of chemical control was another factor. Blending in the thickener, with elimination of slurry mixers had been found practicable. Therefore, if wet raw grinding were used at all, the advantages were clearly in favor of closed-circuit grinding. Detailed layouts of the most modern possible closed-circuit dry-grinding plant and of a closed-circuit wet-grinding plant were prepared, and careful estimates were made of initial investment and operating costs. Full consideration of all the factors involved resulted in a decision to install wet closed-circuit grinding. The capacity of the new kilns was established at 4000 bbl. per day. Two new kilns were installed, each with a capacity of 80 bbl. per hour. Since 625 lb. of raw material is required to make a barrel of finished cement, the capacity of the grinding plant for the new kilns had to average only 1250 tons per day. Sufficient additional grinding capacity had to be provided for the two remaining old kilns, or their possible replacement by a third new kiln. The grinding rate, therefore, was set at 90 tons per

Jan 1, 1939

By Wm. R. Dotson

Forty years ago the atom was split and the Age of Fission dawned. Uranium was the element used in this earth-shaking accomplishment. Thitherto almost unknown to the man in the street, uranium soon became widely and persistently sought. And the quest for this unique material is not likely to diminish during this century. To find is one thing; to own is another. Who owns uranium in the ground? Where no mineral rights in the land have been severed by devise, grant, reservation or lease, the uranium belongs to the fee simple owner of the land. But where there has been a conveyance or reservation of all or part of the "minerals", determining WHAT a substance is has been the traditional way of determining WHO owns it. What, then, is this element called uranium? The 1907 edition of Watts Dictionary of Chemistry calls it "a lustrous, hard, silver-white metal". Of nature's three prime divisions it falls within the embrace of the mineral kingdom - substances neither animal nor vegetable. In its natural state uranium always is combined with other elements or substances in the form of an ore mineral. May we, then, put to rest any doubt or question as to the nature of uranium and classify it for all purposes, including that of ownership, as mineral? Not quite! That self-same logic would find oil and gas primly ensconced in the animal or vegetable kingdom. Technically, oil and gas are not minerals but legally they have been classified as such. Why? The Supreme Court of Tennessee sought the answer in 1897 in the case of Murray v. Allard, 43 S.W. 355. After citing authorities pro and con, and while admitting their origin to be "decomposition of marine or vegetable organises" that court firmly concluded that since they were obtained by a form of mining, oil and gas were minerals. From the above example two elementary truths emerge. First, for purposes of ownership, uranium is and will be whatever the courts say it is. Secondly, the courts historically and currently favor a practical rather than technical test to determine the "mineral" character of a substance. So now we turn to the jurisprudence for enlightenment and definition. EARLY CASES ALLOT URANIUM TO MINERAL OWNERS Two early cases involving the ownership of uranium followed what had been well-settled mineral within the meaning of the conveyances involved, confirming ownership in the mineral owners. In 1956 the U. S. District Court for New Mexico in the case of New Mexico and Arizona Land Company v. Elkins, 137 F. Supp. 767, appeal dism'd 239 F.2d 645 (10th Cir. 1956), found that a 1946 deed reservation of "all oil, gas and minerals underlying or appurtenant to said lands" included uranium and thorium. The court reasoned that uranium and thorium, being minerals within the scientific, geological and practical meaning of the term, would certainly constitute minerals within the purview of the reservation. While agreeing that uranium and thorium were "minerals", defendants argued that at the tine of execution of the conveyance it could not have been the intention of the parties to reserve them because they had no commercial value in the locality and were, in fact, not known to there exist until their later discovery in 1950. The court re¬jected, as a matter of law, this "lack of knowledge" theory citing the Supreme Court of Kentucky holding in Maynard v. McHenry, 113 S.W. 2d 13, that: "The mere fact that a particular mineral has not been discovered in the vicinity of the land conveyed or is unknown at the time the deed is executed rules of construction and held that uranium was a does not alter the rule . . ." that a grant or exception of "mineral" in a deed includes all mineral substances which can be taken from the land unless restrictive language is used indicating that the parties contemplated something less general than all substances legally cognizable as minerals. Further, argued the defendants, the only feasible mining procedure for such substances was open pit or strip mining, which would destroy the value of the land for grazing or agriculture. Finding that the language of the reservation was clear and unambiguous, the court would not permit the admission of extrinsic evidence as to mining procedures required. Elkins is the first uranium case construing the granting clause involved. In 1958 the Texas Court of Civil Appeals at San Antonio, in Cain v. Neuman, 316 S.W. 2d 915, no writ, held that a 1918 lease conveying "all of the oil, gas, coal and other minerals in and under" the land involved covered uranium. The lease provided a royalty of 1/10th on "other minerals." "We find no Texas precedent which discusses uranium," said the court, "but the usual arguments that uranium is not embraced within a lease are that the ejusden generis rule excludes uranium from the meaning of the lease

Jan 1, 1979

By L. C. Uren

Field studies and laboratory research have established the fact that the expulsive force which drives petroleum into wells, from the reservoir sands in which it is stored by nature, is primarly an expression of the energy latent within compressed natural gas dissolved or occluded in, or otherwise associated with the oil. Each barrel of oil produced is forced into the recovery well by the expansive energy of a certain volume of compressed gas, originally stored with the oil in the pores of the reservoir rock; and each cubic foot of gas so produced with the oil and expanded to atmospheric pressure reduces by so much the total natural energy available for oil expulsion. This relationship between the volumes of gas and oil produced has seemed so important that petroleum production technolo-gists have come to regard the "gas-oil ratio," or the "gas factor" as it has been more conveniently termed, as a measure of oil-production efficiency. Different methods of oil recovery and production devices are now Com pared on this basis and estimates of ultimate recovery obtainable through their use are considered by many to be inversely proportional to the values of their respective gas factors. The writer has been among those who have given support to a widcspread movement toward a proper recognition of the significance of the gas factor as a guide in the control of producing oil wells, and does not wish to oppose its more extended application. It seems necessary, how-cvcr, in view of the almost elemental faith with which the principle of the gas factor has been received in many quarters, to point out that it is a most complex factor, and one which cannot be regarded as an absolute index of production efficiency without due regard to other contributing factors by which it is influenced to an important degree. Variables Influencing Gas Factor The mere recording of a low gas factor, obtained through the use of some method or device, does not necessarily imply efficient oil production; and conversely, a high gas factor does not always signify inefficient recov-

Jan 1, 1928

By Renato G. Bautista, Robert A. Hard

A comparative study has been made of the ex-tractability of several of the transitim metals from thiocyanate sohtions using methyl isobutyl ketone as the organic solvent. Extractions were made of scandium (III), chromium (III), manganese (II), iron (III), and cobalt (II), of which only the scandium , iron, and cobalt were readily extracted. All extractions were made at pH 2 and at 25.5 °C. A series of extraction experiments was made on scandium, iron, and cobalt to determine the effect of thiocyanate cmcentration added as the ammonium and also as the calcium salt. Also determined was the effect of metal ion concentratim and ionic strength on the distribution ratio. Analyses of the organic extracts indicated the scandium and iron were extracted principally in the uncharged trithiocyanate form, while the extractable form of the cobalt contained the cobaltotetrathiocyanate anion. THE chemical separation of metal complexes in solution by solvent extraction has in recent years been developed for large scale separation as well as bench scale work in the laboratory. It has also found increased application in analytical chemistry. Its extension to extractive metallurgy as a unit operation is best illustrated in the recovery of uranium and vanadium from their leached liquor.5-8 The extractability of some thiocyanate systems have been extensively investigated. The rate earths have been separated from one another using butanol as a olvent. Scandium was effectively extracted in ethyl ether using ammonium thiocyanate as the com-plexing agent.'' Similarly, the separation of hafnium from zirconium has been reported using ether""' or hexone13 as the organic solvent. The extractability of various metal thiocyanates in ethyl ether is given by 0ck.l Sharp and Wilkinson15 prepared nickel-free cobalt slats by thiocyanate extraction. The mechanism of extraction of titanium (IV) thiocyanate with methyl isobutyl ketone was determined by elafosse.''" The characterization of cobalt (TI) thiocyanate complex using methyl isobutyl ketone as the solvent at near neutral aqueous solution and the spectrometric studies of the ex-tractable cobalt complex has been made by Hard." It is noteworthy to mention at this point that the fundamental characteristic of ketone (oxonium) solvent extraction is that the extractable species are uncharged ion pairs solvated by the ketone molecules, but probably still partially hydrated.

Jan 1, 1963

The Institute assembled in the library of the Sheffield Scientific School at 8 o'clock, Tuesday evening, February 23d. Prof. G. J. Brush greeted the members present on behalf of the Government of the Sheffield School in a few words of cordial welcome, to which President Raymond responded. Dr. Raymond then delivered an address on the History of the Relative Values of Gold and Silver. The Council presented, through the President, a list of names of persons duly proposed for members and associates, with recommendation for election. The following gentlemen were unanimously elected: *Prof. George J. Brush,. .. New Haven, Conn. *Prof. Oscar D. Allen,. .. New Haven, Conn. *C. Constable,.....New York City. *Leven S Goodrich,.... Oxmoor, Jefferson Co., Ala. *Charles J. Nourse,.... Columbia, Lancaster Co., Pa. *J. W. Mickley,.....Hockendauqua, Pa. *Hugh Alex. Crawford,. ..St. Louis, No. *General Ario Pardee,. .. Hazleton, Luzerne Co., Pa. N. W. Lord,.....New Pork City. J. Holme Maghee,.... New York City. *George E. B. Jackson,. .. Portland, Me. *Charles W. Watkis,.... Salt Lake City, Utah. *Charles E. Hall,....Philadelphia. *Charles J. Duval,.... San Francisco, Cal. Joseph Gorlinski,.... Salt Lake City, Utah. * Alfred Wartenweiler,. .. Salt Lake City, Utah. Wilmot J. Bowen,.... Salt Lake City, Utah. *Joseph Stokes,..... Trenton, N. J. Jason P. Brown,.... Boston, Mass. *William Davis Hartshorne,. . Bethlehem, Hunterdon Co., N. J. *Henry Williams,.... Spanish Bar, Clear Creek Co., Cot. *Robert Forsyth ,....Chicago, Ill. *S. T. Wellman,.....Cleveland, Ohio. *H. C. Walton,.....Chicago, 111. *Andrew Roy,.....Columbus, Ohio. *James H. Rittenhonse,. .. Providence, Pa.

THE Institute assembled in the library of the Sheffield Scientific School at 8 o'clock, Tuesday evening, February 23d. Prof. G. J. Brush greeted the members present on behalf of the Government of the Sheffield School in a few words of cordial welcome, to which President Raymond responded. Dr. Raymond then delivered an address on the History of the Relative Values of Gold and Silver. The Council presented, through the President, a list of names of persons duly proposed for members and associates, with recom¬mendation for election. The following gentlemen were unanimously elected: *Prof. George J. Brush, - New Haven, Conn. *Prof. Oscar D. Allen, - New Haven, Conn. *C. Constable, - New York City. *Leven S Goodrich, - Oxmoor, Jefferson Co., Ala. *Charles J. Nourse, - Columbia, Lancaster Co., Pa. *J. W. Mickley, - Hockendauqua, Pa. *Hugh Alex. Crawford, - St. Louis, Mo. *General Ario Pardee, - Hazleton, Luzerne Co., Pa. †N. W. Lord, - New York City. †J. Holme Maghee, - New York City. *George E. B. Jackson, - Portland, Me. *Charles W. Watkis, - Salt Lake City, Utah. *Charles E. Hall, - Philadelphia. *Charles J. Duval, - San Francisco, Cal. †tJoseph Gorlinski, - Salt Lake City, Utah. *Alfred Wartenweiler, - Salt Lake City, Utah. †Wilmot J. Bowen, - Salt Lake City, Utah. *Joseph Stokes, - Trenton, N. J. †Jason P. Brown, - Boston, Mass. *William Davis Hartshorne, - Bethlehem, Hunterdon Co., N. J. *Henry Williams, - Spanish Bar, Clear Creek Co., Col.. *Robert Forsyth, - Chicago, Ill. *S. T. Wellman, - Cleveland, Ohio. *H. C. Walton, - Chicago, Ill. *Andrew Roy, - Columbus, Ohio. *James H. Rittenhouse, - Providence, Pa. * Members. † Associates

Jan 1, 1875

By Robert E. Green, T. Hinton

The velocities of the three possible modes of elastic-wave Propagation have been calculated for single-crystal aluminum at 1-deg intervals throughout the standard steveographic triangle. The results are presented as isospeed contours. The deviations between the direction of maximum energy propagation and specirzen axes are presented as arrows drawn within the standard triangle. The orientation factors associated with dislocation nzotion on the primary slip system only and also on all twelve slip systenzs have been calculated for all three elastic waves. The orientation factors associated with a longitudinal standing--7aue resonant specivnen hazle also been calculated. The relevance of these results to ultrasonic attenuation measurements is discussed. DUE to the widespread use of ultrasonics in the investigation of the properties of solids a number of authors15 have discussed in detail the theory of elastic-wave propagation in solids. In this paper the modes of wave propagation are evaluated according to the procedure suggested by reeen' for the case of single-crystal aluminum at 1-deg intervals throughout the standard stereographic triangle. The wave speeds are presented in the form of contour diagrams within the standard triangle. The deviations between the direction of maximum energy propagation and the normals to the wave fronts are presented as arrows drawn within the standard triangle. The orientation-de pendent factors (orientation factors) associated with dislocation damping as derived in the preceding paper6 have been calculated for the case of aluminum at 1-deg intervals throughout the standard triangle. The orientation factors for dislocation motion on the primary slip system only and on all twelve slip systems are presented in the form of contour diagrams, for both the traveling- and the standing-wave conditions. The relevance of these results to ultrasonic attenuation measurements is discussed. ELASTIC-WAVE PROPAGATION Three waves can be propagated in a linear elastic homogeneous anisotropic medium. The velocity of propagation v of each of these waves in a medium of density p can be obtained from the determination of the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the matrix equa- The A's are a series of moduli which are functions of the elastic constants cij and the direction cosines 1, m, and n of the specimen axis. In the case of cubic single crystals where there are only three nonzero elastic constants cll, c12, and C, the A's are, The solution of Eq. [I] will give the wave speeds (eigenvalues) and the direction cosines a, 0, and y of the particle displacements (eigenvectors). To obtain the direction of maximum energy flux requires the calculation of the energy-flux vector ET with com- w is the angular frequency, A, the amplitude, and v the velocity of the wave. The direction cosines a, b, and c of the energy flux vector are then given by

Jan 1, 1967

By A. K. Mukherjee, J. E. Dorn, J. D. Mole

Investigations were carried out on the effect of polyslip on the strain hardening of aluminum single crystals. The orientations investigated were those lor which the tensile axis was in the [001], [111], [112], and [012] directions plus another for which the Schmid angles for {111}(110) slip were 1 deg. The experimental data were analyzed on a model based on the intersection of dislocations with particular emphasis on the effect of polyslip on the activation volume for inter-section. It is shown that the rate of strain hardening inreases for those orientations wherein attractive dislocation intersections occur and that those orientations which produce the greater number of such intersections exhibit the greater strain hardening. Good correlation of the data is obtained with the concept that attractive junctions, as proposed by Saada, Play an important role in accounting for the rate of strain hardening. EXISTING concepts on the nature and cause of strain hardening in fcc metals have been deduced principally from experiments on the deformation of single crystals under single slip. The effect of crystal orientation on the shapes of the stress-strain curves for single slip have been summarized by seegerl and more recently by Clarebrough and Hargreaves.2 Tensile specimens whose axes fall near the center of the [001]-[011] line of the standard triangle of the stereographic projection exhibit the longest range of easy glide (Stage I) and the lowest rates of linear hardening (Stage 11) whereas specimens whose axes lie near fie [001]-[111] line of the standard triangle have limited or no easy-glide range and exhibit somewhat higher linear strain-hardening rates. Specimens whose axes lie near the [001] or the [ill] poles do not exhibit easy glide and have the highest rates of linear hardening. Kocks3 has shown that the highest rates of linear hardening Occur under Polyslip when the tensile axis coincides with the [111] or the [ 001] pole. Since the rate of strain hardening is sensitive to specimen orientation and the incidence of polyslip, these relationships might help to discriminate between various dislocation models for strain hardening in fcc metals. Previous attempts to analyze the effect of orientation on strain hardening,1"3 however, did not provide a unique answer to this problem. Consequently the present investigation was undertaken wherein additional data, particularly that for the effect of polyslip on the activation volume for intersection, was also determined in order to provide more complete information on the details of strain hardening. Whereas analyses of these data reveal that several recommended models for strain hardening are at variance with the facts, good correlation of the data is obtained with the concept that attractive junctions4 play an important role in accounting for the rate of strain hardening. I) EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH seegerl demonstrated that slip in fcc crystals at low temperatures is dependent on thermally activated intersection of glide dislocations with forest dislocations. This has been confirmed by tests on single crystals of aluminum by Mitra, Osborne and Dorn5 and on polycrystalline aluminum by Mitra and Darn.' Thus in accord with Seeger's theory, the shear strain rate, ?, below a critical temperature, T, is where .V is the number of points of contact per unit volume between forest dislocations and glide dislocations, A is the area swept out per successful intersection, b is the Burgers vector, v is the frequency of vibration of the segment of the glide dislocation undertaking intersection, U is the activation energy for intersection, k is Boltzmann's constant, and T is the absolute temperature. For aluminum, which has an extremely high staeking-fault energy, the constriction energy is negligibly small and therefore the activation energy decreases practically linearly with the stress according to as will be recomfirmed later, where Uo is jog energy at the absolute zero, G and Go are the shear moduli at the test temperature T and O°K, respectively, L is the spacing of the forest dislocations, t is the applied shear stress for slip, and tGo is the stress field that must be surmounted athermally.

Jan 1, 1965

By C. R. Sandberg, L. S. Gournay, R. F. Sippel

The effect of fluid-flow rate and fluid viscosity on oil-water relative permeability determinations was studied using the "dynamic flow technique." In this work relative per-nleability curves were obtained for homogeneous small core .samples from several sandstorle outcrop form-utions. Radio-tracers were used for the determination of fluid saturation and for the detection of saturation gradients. Cobalt-60 in the form of cobaltous chloride was used as a water-phase tracer in some of the experiments. Iodine-131 in the form of iodobenzene and Mercury-20-3 in the form of mercury diphenyl were used as oil-phase tracers in other experiments. Flow rates for each phase were varied within a range of 2.5 to 140.6 ml/hr. Oil-phase vis-cosities under flowing condition,> were varied from 0.398 to 1.683 cp. The relative permbilities ob-tained were found to he solely a function of saturation and independent of flow rare, provided there was no .Saturation gradient induced in the core sample by "boundary effect." Even though equilibrium with re-sped to flowing conditions was obtained at the lower flow rates, where a saturation gradient exists, this equilibrium is of a "contingent"-type rather than the "steady-state" equi-librium implicit in the relative per-meability concept. The only effect of increasing the oil or non-wetting phase viscosity was to decrease the flow rate required for the elimina-tion of the boundary effect. Fairly good agreement between experimentally determined and calculated values of the boundary effect was obtained when the non-wet-ring oil phase was the only Flowing phase. INTRODUCTION In the characterization of reservoir rock, as well as in the solution of reservoir production problems, it is most desirable to have reliablc rela-tive permeability measurements for the rock and fluids of interest. Many techniques have been developed for the laboratory determination of the relative permeability of both large and small core samples. In varying degree, difficulties attend the use of all of the methods. Each of the methods requires the metered flow of fluids of known viscosity through the core sample under conditions wherein the pressure drop in the individual flowing phases can be measured or closely approximated. Since the relative permeability is a function of the saturation and distribution of the flowing fluids, some means of obtaining such information is also required. The laboratory determination of the relative permeability of a sample should give the same relative permeability saturation relationship that would exist if the sample were in place in the oil reservoir. The attainment of this objective is complicated by the fact that the use of small core samples for laboratory measurements is usually necessary. As a result, errors in measuring the relative permeability arise from boundary effects at either the fluid input or output ends of the sample; no significant boundary effect is anticipated at the sides of the sample normal to direction of fluid flow. At the input end of the sample a boundary effect exists if the flow fluids are not com- mingled as they would be in the reservoir. At the output end of the sample a boundary effect exists as a result of discontinuity of the capillary properties of the system. Here the flowing fluids leave the small flow channels and enter a collecting system having much enlarged flow channels. Thus, there is a tendency for the wetting phase to be retained by the core sample because of the attraction of the core sample for the wetting fluid. No reference is made to these boundary effects in either Darcy's equation or in the relative permeability concept. As a consequence the saturation effect peculiar to the input end of the core sample may cause an error in the effective permeability measurement, since some portion of the core sample must be utilized for commingling of the flow fluids. At the output portion of the core sample a saturation gradient or a saturation change along the axis of flow results. Since relative permeability is a function of fluid saturation, this saturation gradient may cause a variable permeability measurement, especially since extent and character of the saturation gradient can vary with fluid-flow rate. The most convenient method of minimizing the boundary effect, especially at the output end of the sample, is to flow the fluids of interest through the core sample at such high rates that the capillary forces arc insignificant as compared to the viscous forces involved in the fluid flow. Since recent work of a preliminary nature has indicated that fluid dispersion in the porous medium increases with the flow rate, the high flow minimizes the boundary effect at the input end of the core sample by enhancing the mixing of the fluids.

By L. R. Raymond, J. L. Hudson

This paper proposes a comparatively short-term (8 to 10 hours) well test for detecting and characterizing well-bore damage and for measuring mean formation permeability. The proposed test is made by injecting fluid at constant pressure, recording injection rate as a function of injection time. After one to four hours of injection, the well is shut in and fall-off of bottom-hole pressure is obtained as a function of shut-in time. Formation permeability is estimated by an iterative technique. First, a value of formation permeability is assumed. Then, a plot of the recorded injection rate as a function of dimensionless time is made, using the assumed pertneability value. From the slope of the injection-rate curve. a new value of formation permeability is calculated. If the new value agrees with the original assumed value, the assumption was the correct formation permeability. If the values do not agree, the process is repeated using the new permeability value in the calculation. Convergence is rapid, and a reliable permeability value results. Pressure fall-off data are used to check the result. Graphs of pressure and injection rate us functions of time given in the paper show that changes in permeability of the formation in the neighborhood of the wellbore are disclosed by this technique. Thus, the short-term test can he used to detect formation damage. Also, a rough measure of the radial extent of damage can be inferred, which is helpful in designing stimulation treatments. The mathematical model used for this work was a single-zone, horizontal reservoir with a damaged zone in which permeability decreased continuously as radial distance to the wellbore decreased. This model is more realistic than the usual two-zone, discontinuous permeability model used in published works; calculations indicate the realistic model is valid. Vertical variations in horizontal permeability were studied with this model, and results indicate that the permeability measured by the short-term test is the mean horizontal permeability for the vertical interval tested. The proposed short-term test thus should be useful in detecting and characterizing formation damage and in measuring formation permeability needed in calculating reservoir transmissibility. INTRODUCTION To plan the most efficient production or injection schedule for a well and to design or evaluate the optimal stimu- lation treatment, it is necessary to know the properties of the reservoir adjacent to the well, particularly the reservoir transmissibility and characteristics of a damaged zone, if one exists. Several techniques for determining reservoir transmissi-bility from well tests have been presented in the literature. 1,2,3,4 All these techniques rely on conducting constant-rate well tests that often are difficult to execute. A constant-pressure well test is generally easier to carry Out. and this paper contains the first available method for the analysis of constant-pressure well tests. Determination of wellbore damage from transient well tests has been the subject of several papers."" From these studies it is apparent that information necessary for determination of the characteristics of a damaged zone is available shortly after the transient well test is initiated. Consequently, it may not be necessary to carry out an extensive well test (for example, a pressure build-up test) if the primary purpose of the test is to detect the existence of wellbore damage. All previous studies of well testing to determine wellbore damage have been based on the two-zone perrneability model. In this model the damaged zone has a permeability k,, extending to a radius r,,, and the formation permeability k obtains from r, to the drainage radius r,.. Consequently, there is a discontinuity in permeability at r = r,,. This discontinuity can be eliminated by assuming a continuous variation in permeability through the damaged zone. The effect of this assumption on transient well tests is discussed in following sections of this paper. In addition, all formations have within them vertical permeability variations associated with lithology changes throughout the zone of interest. This paper also considers the effect of these variations on transient well tests. ANALYSIS OF CONSTANT-PRESSURE WELL TESTS The mathematical analysis associated with the injection of fluid at constant wellbore pressure into a single-zone, horizontal reservoir completely filled with a fluid of small and constant compressibility and constant viscosity is given in Appendix A. In this analysis it is assumed that the well is located at the center of an undamaged, circular drainage area. From this analysis, the formation permeability can be obtained as follows. 1, Estimate a value for the formation permeability k. 2. Prepare a plot of injection rate q vs

Jan 1, 1967

US 4,189,461-Hydrometallurgical extraction of values from a sulfide ore of copper, silver, nickel, cobalt, molybdenum or zinc Ore is leached in a first stage with an aqueous nitric acid leach liquor and In a second stage the preleached mineral is oxidized with nitrogen dioxide to enable the metal values to be solubilized. The second-stage leach liquor is routed to the first stage, while first-stage liquor is subjected to electrolysis or other treatment for values This patent is a continuation- in-part of US Patent No. 4,132,758, dated Jan 2, 1979. R E Lueders and T C Franiewicz, assigned to Kennecott Copper Corp Feb. 19, 1980. 8 pp. (423-27). Filed. 2-23-78 (880,552). (Drawing below)

Jan 1, 1982