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By L. W. Kempf, R. S. Archer

The binary aluminum-silicon alloys have certain characteristic advantages which are now well known, and these alloys have come into considerable use during the past several years.' Their field of application has been limited to a certain extent, however, by their low yield point and hardness, low endurance limit, and relatively poor machining characteristics. These properties are improved by the addition of copper, and the ternary aluminum-silicon-copper alloys constitute an important class. The addition of copper decreases the corrosion resistance of the aluminum-silicon alloys and increases specific gravity. Magnesium is a hardening addition which seems to have relatively little effect on corrosion resistance, and which, of course, reduces specific gravity. The object of the work described in this paper was the development of alloys and heat treatments for the production of sand castings and permanent-mold castings having substantially all the advantages of the binary aluminum-silicon alloys together with mechanical properties improved to a degree permitting wider application. Constitution of Alloys Magnesium and silicon combine in aluminum alloys as the compound Mg2Si, which forms a binary system with aluminum. In alloys containing an excess of silicon over that required to form the compound, solidification ends with the freezing at 1022' F. (550' C.) of a ternary eutectic of aluminum, Mg²Si, and silicon. Judging from the horizontal projection of the liquidus surface as given by Hanson and Gayler,² this ternary eut,ectic contains about 13 per cent. silicon and 6 per cent. magnesium. All of the alloys discussed here contain excess silicon, so it

Jan 1, 1931

By Juan Sodi, John F. Elliott

The standard free energy of ReS2 has been measured in the range of 1050° to 1250°K using H2/H2S mixtures and a slight variation of the method described by Hager and Elliott.1 The result is: The experimental method and apparatus were modified slightly for this study. Measurements on Cu2S were made to verify the application of the method to the work on ReS2. THE EXPERIMENTS AND RESULTS Briefly, the experimental method consisted of exposing a chip of copper or rhenium at a known temperature for 8 hr to a slowly flowing gas stream at the same temperature in which Ph2S and PH2 were known. The chip was withdrawn quickly from the hot furnace, and subsequently it was inspected for the presence of a sulfided surface. In the experiments described here, there was no ambiguity in any case as to the presence or the absence of the sulfide. At a given temperature, gas compositions for sulfidization were explored systematically until two compositions were found whose values of ?G°, Eqs. [I] and [2], were within approximately 100 cal of each other, one of which was sulfi-dizing and the other was not. These are termed the "straddle" compositions and it is assumed that the equilibrium composition lies between them. The chief modification to the apparatus, which is shown schematically in Fig. 1 of Ref. 1, was to support the metal specimen on a small alumina boat which could be moved along the reaction tube, 6 mm ID, by platinum wires. An appropriate seal at each end of the reaction tube permitted the sample to be moved from the cold end of the tube into the hot zone in 2 to 3 sec, and the sample could be withdrawn equally rapidly. Thus, it was possible essentially to quench the specimen from the reaction temperature with the reaction gas or helium flowing and without danger of breaking the reaction tube. The usual practice at the end of the experiment was to switch the gas system to the helium tank, flood the reaction chamber with helium, and pull the sample out of the hot zone. The purpose of the modification was to permit study of the sulfidization of copper without the complication of the back-reaction between the gas and the specimen as the latter cooled during slow withdrawal of it from the hot zone; this was a problem in the earlier work.&apos; A further improvement located the tip of the temperature-indieating thermocouple and the specimen precisely at the hottest part of the furnace. A carefully calibrated thermocouple, with its tip at the position of the specimen and with other conditions duplicating those of an actual experiment, showed that in the temperature range of 900° to 1122°C the temperature of the specimen differed from that of the tip of the indicating thermocouple by less than 0.5°C. The two positions were 0.5 cm apart. The reaction gas was prepared from ultrahigh-purity hydrogen (<l ppm O2, <0.5 ppm H2O) and CP grade hydrogen sulfide (99.5 pct H2S). High-purity helium (99.995 pct He) was used. All of these gases were purchased from the Matheson Co. All flow meters were recalibrated by the soap-bubble method with hydrogen, H2S, helium, and several gas compositions used during the study. These calibrations gave a linear relationship with a slope of 1.0 for the plot of log flow rate vs log pressure drop across the flow meter, in accordance with the Hagen-Poiseuille equation. The analysis of the gas was determined in the same manner as was reported previously. Good checks were obtained between the composition of the gas established by the flow-meter settings and by chemical analysis of the gas taken after the mixing bulb and ahead of the furnace. The pressures of H2S, H2, S2, and HS in the equilibrium gas at temperature were calculated from the following data :3 The pressures of the species S and S8 were negligible for the conditions of the experiments.3 There was no sign of vaporization of ReS2 either by weight loss or deposits in the reaction tube. Thus it is not possible to account for the apparent volatility of the compound reported by Juza and Biltz.2 The inlet gas composition and the calculated equilibrium ratio of PH2 S/PH2 for the "straddle" points of each experiment are shown in Table I. The specimens of metal for the experiment were small clippings of annealed copper (99.9+ pct) sheet 0.005 in. thick that was obtained from Baker and Adamson and of "high-purity" rhenium (99.9+ pct) sheet 0.005 in. thick that was purchased from Chase Brass and Copper Co. A specimen was removed from the apparatus; inspected for the presence of the sulfide, and then stored in a sealed vial. A fresh clipping was used in each measurement. The condition of the surface of each specimen after the experiment is noted in Table I.

Jan 1, 1969

By Richard R. Klimpel

The role of dispersion is described in the wet grinding of ores using tumbling media mills and the flotation of coal, sulfide, and non-sulfide ores. Emphasis is placed on characterizing the effects of dispersion in laboratory tests using engineering models which provide information useful for the improvement and control of existing plant operations. Significant economic gains in the above named operations have been realized using these models as guides for full- scale plant testing.

Jan 1, 1980

By C. C. Harris

A critical literature review leads to a descriptive model of tumbling mill operation based upon energy partition concepts and the necessary requirements for particle fracture. As grinding proceeds into the ultra-fine region, conditions which are of little significance during normal operations gradually become controlling. These involve increasing resistance to fracture and an increasing tendency to aggregate as particles become smaller, and a growing fraction of the power input being consumed fruitlessly. The result is that fineness asymptotes to a maximum value as comminution proceeds indefinitely; thus where t is time, p and n are experimentally determined parameters, and Ø is a measure of fineness, which is presumed to be proportional to specific surface area, or proportional to the reciprocal of the size modulus (provided that the distribution modulus remains constant with time), or both. Ø, is the asymptotic value of Ø and is a measure of the grind limit. A method for its graphical determination is given. In a previous paper1 the physical and mathematical principles requisite to a study of the role of energy in comminution were reviewed. The micro-process of comminution — or the comminution event — can be investigated in terms of (a) the magnitude of the force-field localized around the individual particles which gives rise to the stresses generated in the particles, which in turn induces their fracture, and (b) the distribution of fragment sizes, should the event prove fruitful. The entire fragmentation operation can be considered to be the totality of its individual events, and in order to obtain a single independent variable of the process it is necessary to transform and sum the local stresses in terms of energy.1 This energy, however, will account for only a fraction of the energy input to the comminution process, the actual magnitude depending upon the kind of mill and several related factors. From the comminution viewpoint the primary function of a mill is that of stressing as many as possible of the individual particles of the charge to failure, with the maximum economy of energy expenditure. This is difficult indeed to achieve, for stressing a particle does not always break it, while the overwhelming portion of the energy input is involved with various internal mill processes which — almost incidentally — determine the magnitude, frequency, and manner in which the forces are applied to the particles. Essentially, these processes depend upon the mill dimensions, loading and speed, and they may be little affected whether fracture occurs or not. These processes must be delineated if a complete description of the role of energy in comminution is to be given; the energy account sheet1 (Fig. 1) in showing how the energy is partitioned for the requirements of the several functions it performs, provides a framework for the development of a model of the comminution process. Actual numerical values for the variables appearing in Fig. 1 will depend upon the mill, materials, and operating conditions. A possible general relationship between the variables will be suggested in this paper. Before proceeding further, a cautionary note must be issued. It was pointed out in an earlier paper&apos; that while energy input is not changed by increasing the power and decreasing the time in the same proportion, and vice versa, the results of the process in terms of particle fineness may be different. Thus, although energy is chosen as the independent variable of a comminution process, it is not absolutely independent, and care must be exercised to ensure that it is used within its range of valid application. Time has the necessary independence, and it will be used in place of energy where it is appropriate. The residence time in a mill is usually of the order of minutes. Under these conditions the particles are subjected to "... a relatively constant fracture producing environment".2 However, under the more rigorous conditions of greatly extended time, which pertain in ultra-fine grinding, indications are that the fracture producing environment no longer remains constant; this is the major subject of this paper. At this extreme limit the mill is probably taxed to its utmost, and at the same time the bulk material properties are becoming closer to ideal, while the physico chemical effects associated with surfaces, edges and corners are multiplying. (The edge length per unit volume is proportional to the square of the specific

Jan 1, 1968

On Wednesday evening, Jan. 27, 1915, were held in the auditorium of the Engineering Societies Building the inaugural exercises of The Engineering Foundation, established by the United Engineering Society. The initial gift to the Foundation of $200,000, made by Ambrose Swasey, Past President of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, was formally accepted at this time. So far as known this is the first instance of a foundation devoted to engineering purposes. This meeting con-stituted also an appropriate tribute to the generous gift made to the Foundation and gave opportunity for expression of the satisfaction and approval which are felt by engineers everywhere at the establishment of a means of promoting the good of mankind through the work of the engineer along the broadest lines. Gano Dunn, President of the United Engineering Society and Past President of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, acted as presiding officer, and on the platform were seated representatives of the three societies constituting the United Engineering Society, and of the American Society of Civil Engineers. Members of the four societies and many other friends interested in the profession composed the audience.

Jan 3, 1915

By Carl Swartz

IN the course of a recent investigation1 to develop a more satisfactory white-metal. bearing alloy, a number of alloy systems were studied. The cadmium-nickel system showed characteristics desirable in a bearing alloy, and the system was therefore studied in some detail. EXPERIMENTAL METHOD Alloying cadmium with nickel offered no serious difficulty. After melting the cadmium, clean sheet nickel was added while the temperature was maintained at 500° to 600° C: A few crystals of ammonium chloride2 served to clean the nickel when the latter did not "wet" readily. In preparing the individual alloys for thermal and microscopic investigation, a "hardener" containing about 10 per cent nickel was used.

Jan 1, 1933

By D. D. Dunkin

Sandstone has been prepared for glassmaking purposes, and marketed from the White River Valley in Arkansas at Guion, Izard County, since about 1910—soon after the completion of the White River Branch of the Missouri Pacific R. R. Co. Until 1921, operations were somewhat spasmodic and ended in many failures. In that year a plant was built by the Silica Products Co., Inc., and since that time the operation has been continuous and steady. The land is held under leases, covering about 30 square miles of the best sandstone adjacent to the railroad. Most of the product is shipped to glassmakers. Geology The St. Peter sandstone is rather widely distributed in north central Arkansas and is exposed most prominently in outcrops along the slopes of the White River Valley and its tributarirs that form the division between the Boston Mountains to the south and the Salem Plateau of the Ozarks to the north. It is of Ordovician age and is generally underlaid by Cotter dolomite and capped by Plattin limestone, except in the vicinity of Bellefonte and Everton. At those places, it is a massive cross-bedded, laminated, saccharoidal sandstone; underlying it is the Everton limestone and overlying it, the Joachim magnesium limestone The sandstone at Everton contains numerous phosphatic pebbles and inclusions of sandy limestone. The irregularity of cross-section, the evidence of sorting action and the phosphatic pebbles appear to be indications of secondary deposition The St. Peter sandstone occurs as a massive formation in the picturesque bluffs along the White River Valley from near the eastern escarprnent of the uplift northwestmard into the Ozarks. The exposure shows a series of gentle anticlinal and synclinal folds. The greatest thickness is at the southeastern end, where it is over 100 ft. in many places. It thins out to the north and west and then to isolated and scattered deposits which cap the ridges and mountains of the Ozarks.

Jan 1, 1928

By G. J. Wilson

Review of difficulties experienced in drilling directional wells in the offshore Grand Isle Block 43 field showed most failures of drill pipe, drill collars and casing to have been associated with excessive dog-legs. Alleviation of difficulties was approached by synthesizing theoretical and practical concepts in a planned dog-leg control program. Preventive measures necessary to control dog-leg severity and corrective measures used to reduce unacceptable doglegs are discussed. When other measures fail, deliberative measures as outlined can be employed after the probable cumulative fatigue damage to be sustained by the drill pipe has been determined. Results of a program successful in virtually eliminating problems stemming from excessive dog-legs indicate that control of dog-leg severity in directional wells is feasible and will cause no decrease in the over-all drilling rate. INTRODUCTION Prompted by an increasing frequency of drill pipe, drill collar and casing failures, a study of 50 directional wells representing 592,000 ft of hole, including 444,000 ft of deviated hole, drilled in the offshore Grand Isle Block 43 field was conducted in early 1965. A number of drill pipe washouts and six keyseating problems were recorded and a detailed review was made of 16 failures which had required fishing effort in 10 of the 50 directional wells drilled prior to June, 1965. These problem wells are exemplified by Wells G and F for which pertinent data are shown in Figs. 1 and 2. Data pertaining to all of the 16 failures are summarized in Table 1. Inspection of these data shows most of the problems to have been associated with dog-legs in excess of theoretical limits suggested by Lubinski&apos; and excessive dog-legging is indicated to have been concomitant with whipstocking in several of the problem wells. Results of the investigation agreed with those reported by Schenck2 who had concluded that problems could be expected when dog-leg severity exceeded limits proposed by Lubinski. Since Schenck had demonstrated the desirability and feasibility of drilling directional wells without excessive dog-legging, a dog-leg control program was established in June, 1965 for wells drilled in the Grand Isle Block 43 field. This paper reviews the methods by which theoretical and practical concepts were synthesized to develop a program of preventive, corrective and deliberative measures which virtually eliminated problems stemming from excessive dog-legs in directional wells. Dog-legs of a magnitude causing no damage are referred to as permissible +1CONTINENTAL OIL CO. HARVEY, LA.

By F. M. Lewis, J.F. Myers

The Tennessee Copper Company&apos;s operations are in the Ducktown Basin, in the extreme southeast corner of Tennessee. The ore is of the heavy sulphide type, the predominating sulphides being pyrite, pyr-rhotite, chalcopyrite and sphalerite. The gangue is a micaceous schist, with varying amounts of free quartz. The mining operation develops two classes of ore, each of which is concentrated by the flotation process in separate mills. Table 1 shows a typical analysis of the ore treated in each mill. The London mill was built in 1922, with a capacity of 400 tons per day. This was gradually increased to 600 tons by 1926, to 900 tons in 1928, and to 1350 tons in 1938. Fig. 1 shows the crushing and grinding flowsheet in 1928, when the capacity was 900 tons; Fig. 2, the crushing and grinding flowsheet that was developed by 1938, for the treatment of 1350 tons per day. A comparison of these flowsheets reveals that this increase in tonnage, with a subsequent improved operation, was accomplished with identically the same major equipment. Improving a concentrator&apos;s capacity, metallurgical results, and costs as time goes by is a commonplace practice, and is accomplished in various ways, depending upon the local conditions. The reason for presenting the data of how this was accomplished in the mills of the Tennessee Copper Co. is that a fast-running rod mill plays such an interesting role

Jan 1, 1943

By J. F. Myers, F. M. Lewis

The Tennessee Copper Company&apos;s operations are in the Ducktown Basin, in the extreme southeast corner of Tennessee. The ore is of the heavy sulphide type, the predominating sulphides being pyrite, pyr-rhotite, chalcopyrite and sphalerite. The gangue is a micaceous schist, with varying amounts of free quartz. The mining operation develops two classes of ore, each of which is concentrated by the flotation process in separate mills. Table 1 shows a typical analysis of the ore treated in each mill. The London mill was built in 1922, with a capacity of 400 tons per day. This was gradually increased to 600 tons by 1926, to 900 tons in 1928, and to 1350 tons in 1938. Fig. 1 shows the crushing and grinding flowsheet in 1928, when the capacity was 900 tons; Fig. 2, the crushing and grinding flowsheet that was developed by 1938, for the treatment of 1350 tons per day. A comparison of these flowsheets reveals that this increase in tonnage, with a subsequent improved operation, was accomplished with identically the same major equipment. Improving a concentrator&apos;s capacity, metallurgical results, and costs as time goes by is a commonplace practice, and is accomplished in various ways, depending upon the local conditions. The reason for presenting the data of how this was accomplished in the mills of the Tennessee Copper Co. is that a fast-running rod mill plays such an interesting role

Jan 1, 1943

By E. C. Wright

THE following article is based on observation of college graduates entering the steel industry in technical work made during the past 25 years, the first five of which were spent as a college instructor in two engineering schools, and the last 20 in the employ of a large steel company that has hired hundreds of engineering graduates for steel-mill operations. The college graduates encountered during this period have come from many, colleges representing schools in Eastern States, Midwestern Universities, many Southern colleges, and many smaller colleges and normal training schools mostly in western Pennsylvania and Ohio. The college training of these students for engineering work naturally has varied widely and the educational qualifications of the entrants have been in many ways different. It was found at an early date that graduates of standard engineering colleges were much more adaptable than graduates in science from nontechnical schools. The engineering students seemed to be more suited to actual work in steel&apos; plants and in general were better able to grasp a knowledge of the operations they observed. However, although the graduates of engineering schools have had somewhat better training -in physics, mathematics, and engineering, it has been a general and continual observation that most of the students employed have had inadequate training in the fundamental sciences. Since this discussion relates entirely to metallurgical engineers, it should be emphasized that students taking metallurgical engineering courses in college seem to be poorly trained in organic chemistry, physics, physical chemistry, thermodynamics, and any higher form of mathematics than simple calculus. It has been noted frequently that young engineers faced with problems in a mill that involve some mathematics generally flounder badly, and that they have little conception of physical chemistry. Another common deficiency lies in the young graduate&apos;s lack of knowledge of where to look for the more detailed literature on any subject. He reverts instinctively to some college textbook whose coverage is usually very elementary. It is recommended that such textbooks contain a bibliography of the source literature, and that students be taught to use theoriginal data. Many of the students had had previous courses in college dealing with metallurgical work such as steel melting, metallography, etc., but it was found that their grasp of these subjects was extremely sketchy. It was soon realized that an ordinary engineering graduate could be taught more about steel melting and manufacturing processes in a, few weeks in a. plant than he could learn in a college course on such subjects. A similar statement may be made regarding the ability of students to conduct laboratory work. Their lack of technique and skill in handling equipment and setting up experiments was soon apparent. It became neces-

Jan 1, 1946

By Leonard Klein

Reduction of oxygen-containing copper has always heretofore been brought about with wood poles. This paper reveals the first successful, economical, and Practical substitute for poles: a gaseous reductant, of which the production and plant use are detailed herein. THE art of fire refining of copper, consisting of melting, oxidation, slag removal, and finally reduction with wood poles, has been practiced for many centuries. An authentic record, discussed in detail in De Re Metallica,* mentions that as early as 1200 A.D. workers in this field of metallurgy were already acquainted with and practiced the basic principles of copper purification. Undoubtedly, the art was well developed marly centuries before the first written records began to appear. Notwithstanding the many advantages gained by application of mechanical con. trivances and by the tremendous increase in size of operations over the centuries, the reduction phase of the process has persisted essentially the same to the present time except for a very recent breakthrough. Numerous articles have been published and many patents have been issued on the subject of substitutes for wood poling in the past half century. They have dealt with a variety of gaseous, solid, and liquid reducing agents. But to the knowledge of the writer, no procedure has ever been prosecuted to a complete success on a large operating plant scale with the single exception of gaseous reduction of oxygen-containing copper revealed in detail herein. A natural gas-air reformer with ample capacity for

Jan 1, 1962

By R. J. Wygal, J. Naar

An equation for three-phase (water, oil, gas) imbibition oil permeability is developed, assuming the water to be the dominant wetting fluid. Oil isoperms are obtained for consolidated sandstones characterized by 1/pc2 = CS*. The evolution of an oil-gas system imbibing water from Swi to(Sw,imb )max is shown to proceed along a line of constant oil saturation with increasing oil permeability and decreasing gas saturation. When the gas satuation cannot be reduced further, the system evolves along a line of constant Sg with decreasing oil saturation and permeability. The initial gas saturation is shown to reduce markedly the effect of complete wetting by either oil or water on flow performance. INTRODUCTION Imbibition oil isoperms are required for performance prediction when a well is producing water, oil and gas. This situation occurs in multiphase displacements such as underground combustion, steam injection and the water flooding of highly depleted reservoirs. In a recent paper,1 a model was presented for the prediction of two-phase imbibition characteristics. This paper extends the imbibition model to the case of three phases by assuming that the water is the dominant wetting fluid. The following results were obtained from the model: (1) an analytical expression of oil isoperms; (2) oil isoperrns as functions of reduced water, oil and gas saturations, valid for all sandstones having a capillary pressure curve which can be approximated by 1/PC = CS*; and (3) evaluation of the three-phase flow performance as dictated by complete wetting by either oil or water. The agreement between predicted and observed oil recovery in the presence of a gas phase, reported in Ref. 1, is a partial support for the present development. However, experimental data are not available at this time to check fully the model predictions. Perhaps this paper will stimulate the collection of such data. The imbibition model of a porous medium has been described previously, and the reader is referred to the paper of Naar and Henderson1 for details. In brief, the model is formed by the random interconnection of straight capillaries, with a provision for the blocking of the non-wetting phase by the invading wetting fluid. The following expressions were derived from the model. 1. The amount of oil blocked by the invading water is

By W. E. Forsythe

Different forms of optical pyrometers are discussed and the advantages and disadvantages of the different types for measuring high temperatures are pointed out. These advantages and disadvantages lead to the selection of the disappearing-filament type of optical pyrometer for most work. Attention is directed to the necessity for the use of a monochromatic screen with a pyrometer, which leads to a discussion of the meaning and use of the effective wave length of the screen. Methods of calibrating the optical pyrometer are outlined and it is shown that an optical pyrometer can be calibrated just as definitely as any other temperature-measuring device. Accuracy tests are included, in which it is shown that excellent results can be obtained by even untrained or slightly trained observers with this form of optical pyrometer. The various corrections that are necessary in this kind of work are indicated, including corrections for stray light, for absorption of windows, of smoke, and so forth. The troublesome problem of measuring the temperature of bodies that do not radiate like a black body is discussed and the corrections for reducing such readings to the true temperature are given for a number of different materials. Introduction The fundamental idea of temperature depends upon our temperature sense and bodies are said to be hot or cold depending upon the reaction of our hands or some other part of the body to the heat from the source investigated. For measuring the temperature some instrument must be devised, since the temperature of the source studied is apt to be so hot as to greatly injure any part of the body that comes near it, to say nothing about direct contact with it. Definition of Temperature.—The temperature scale is based upon two fixed points, the temperature of freezing water and the temperature of boiling water. This temperature interval, depending upon the scale

Jan 1, 1936

By W. E. Forsythe

Different forms of optical pyrometers are discussed and the advantages and disadvantages of the different types for measuring high temperatures are pointed out. These advantages and disadvantages lead to the selection of the disappearing-filament type of optical pyrometer for most work. Attention is directed to the necessity for the use of a monochromatic screen with a pyrometer, which leads to a discussion of the meaning and use of the effective wave length of the screen. Methods of calibrating the optical pyrometer are outlined and it is shown that an optical pyrometer can be calibrated just as definitely as any other temperature-measuring device. Accuracy tests are included, in which it is shown that excellent results can be obtained by even untrained or slightly trained observers with this form of optical pyrometer. The various corrections that are necessary in this kind of work are indicated, including corrections for stray light, for absorption of windows, of smoke, and so forth. The troublesome problem of measuring the temperature of bodies that do not radiate like a black body is discussed and the corrections for reducing such readings to the true temperature are given for a number of different materials. Introduction The fundamental idea of temperature depends upon our temperature sense and bodies are said to be hot or cold depending upon the reaction of our hands or some other part of the body to the heat from the source investigated. For measuring the temperature some instrument must be devised, since the temperature of the source studied is apt to be so hot as to greatly injure any part of the body that comes near it, to say nothing about direct contact with it. Definition of Temperature.—The temperature scale is based upon two fixed points, the temperature of freezing water and the temperature of boiling water. This temperature interval, depending upon the scale

Jan 1, 1936

By J. E. Sherborne, P. H. Jones, E. C. Babson

A study of the Chapman zone in the Richfield field, Orange County, California, indicates that the quantity of oil recovered by present methods will be only a small portion of the oil originally in place. Since the volume of residual oil is believed to be of large magnitude, an experimental water-flooding operation has been initiated in order to determine whether water-flooding offers promise as an economical method of recovering some of this residual oil. A single injection well was drilled between old producing wells, and a water-treating plant using alum flocculation and chlorination was designed and built. Water has been injected into the input well for six months at rates in excess of 100 bbl. per day. Production from one of the neighboring wells has increased materially, the oil production having risen from 7 to 30 bbl. and the water From I to 40 bbl. per day. While definite conclusions regarding the economic success of water-flooding in the Chapman zone are not justified at this time, it has been demonstrated that water can be injected into the zone on a sustained basis and that this water will displace appreciable quantities of oil from the sand. Introduction As a result of an investigation of subsurface conditions in the Chapman zone of the Richfield field, it was concluded that ultimate oil recovery from this zone would probably be low and that natural water encroachment was so localized as to be of little importance from a recovery stand- point. Furthermore, it was found that in many portions of the zone the wells were approaching an unprofitable level of production. When these data were presented to the management of the Union Oil Co.; their reaction was that an attempt should be made to develop methods of recovering at least a portion of the large quantity of oil remaining in this zone. After some investigation, it was decided that wafer-flooding offered the most likely means of accomplishing this end, but reservoir conditions in the Chapman zone differ so widely from those encountered in any of the flooding projects described in the literature that it was difficult to evaluate the probability of success. Despite encouraging results from laboratory tests, it was not even certain that water would displace an appreciable volume of oil from the Chapman sand under reservoir conditions. Therefore, it was decided to initiate a small-scale project, for two purposes: first, to determine whether water would displace oil from the Chapmall sand and, second, to obtain information and experience for future operations if water-flooding appeared to be a promising method of secondary recovery. Reservoir Data The Chapman zone is the upper of the two producing zones in the Richfield field, being found at depths from 3000 to 3700 fi.. The productive portion of the zolle consists of a large irregularly shaped sand body, which is more than 400 ft. thick at the top of the structure. As the margin of the field is approached, the sand is replaced

Jan 1, 1945

By R. H. Fillnow, D. J. Mac

IT has been demonstrated that alloys in systems structurally analogous to steel undergo reactions during heat treatment similar to those of steel, and yet very little work has been done on such systems, particularly from the standpoint of isothermal transformation. The literature shows that most of the isothermal work has been done on copper-alu-minum alloys.&apos;-3 One paper has been reported on a eutectoid copper-silicon alloy,&apos; and one on iron-nitrogen alloys.&apos; There are no published reports of previous investigations on the isothermal transformation of a eutectoid beryllium bronze. At least two papers have been reported on isothermal age-hardening phenomena in beryllium-copper alloys of lower beryllium content.5,6 No information on eutectoid transformations in this alloy is given in Rimbach&apos;s book, "Beryllium." &apos; This paper reports the results of an investigation on the isothermal transformation characteristics of a eutectoid beryllium bronze. Materials Used and Procedure The eutectoid beryllium bronze used in this investigation was centrifugally cast at the Ampco Metal Co., Inc.. Milwaukee. Wis. A master beryl-lium-copier alloy, purchased from the Brush Beryllium Co., was used to make the beryllium addition to the copper. The alloy was melted under a protective carbon cover and Centrifugally cast into a graphite mold preheated to 920°F. Some trouble with segregation of beryllium in the melt was encountered but was eliminated by violent stirring during melting and pouring. Since very thin .specimens were used for the various heat treatments, only one casting of the four prepared was necessary for the complete isothermal study, thus eliminating any discrepancies caused by a change in composition. The analysis of this casting was 94.035 pct copper and 5.965 pct beryllium. A slight trace of iron was found. The castings were sawed into specimens approximately 3/32 in. in thickness. The specimens were first given an "austenitizing" heat treatment at 788°C, well within the single phase beta region, in a vertical tube furnace. The specimens were then quenched individually into an adjacent molten salt bath and held there for a definite time, after which they were quenched into water at room temperature. Temperature was held to ± 2°C in the salt bath. No homogenizing treatment was given the specimens other than the soak at 788°C. Despite the fact that this was a cast alloy, no evidence of segregation or coring was found in the microstructure of any specimen, either as cast or as heat-treated. Upon completion of the heat treatment, the speci-mens were subjected to metallographic examination

Jan 1, 1951

By J. Edgar Pew

As MOST of the oil production comes from leased-lands and not fee property, I shall refer to "leases" as covering the producing tracts. To produce oil, leases on land must first be obtained. Well-selected leases are all important. Not many years ago, the location for drilling for oil in wildcat territory was too frequently determined by the nearness, of adequate water and fuel supply, or with a view to cheapness of transportation. To some extent, the "creekology" theory is the result of the number of wildcat tests made near streams, to obtain water for operations. Now, an up-to-date operator will depend on his geologists for his location and, in many cases, will spend thousands of dollars to get water to it. The wisdom of following the geologist rather than the creek has been abundantly demonstrated in the past few years. In vast territories, where dry holes are spotted at intervals of a few miles or less. apart, and by reason of which these territories have been condemned for oil, the geologist is now finding many more spots that are producing large quantities of oil. No better tribute to the work of the geologist can be found than the surface and subsurface work being done in practically all parts of Oklahoma and the development had as a result of this, work. A land department is usually organized by placing in charge a man who is not only acquainted with the oil development, but who is a shrewd buyer, a first requisite for which should be unquestioned integrity. It takes a shrewd buyer to resist the persuasive lease broker, frequently backed by a geological picture from which the oil fairly drips. The geologist can help a lot by being absolutely honest when he makes these pictures; he will also thus strengthen his own cause. A geologist should interpret his own work and put his name behind his interpretation. If he does not he is liable to be misquoted and often discredited, as a result, by some overzealous lease broker giving an interpretation never intended by the geologist.

Jan 8, 1925

By C. M. Wayman, M. Miyagi

COMPARED to many of the binary alloys of iron, Fe-Ir alloys have received very little tud.&apos;&apos; Virtually nothing is known about the Fe-Ir equilibrium diagram&apos; except for a few details concerning the liquidus-solidus positions for dilute iron-based alloys. It is reported1 that the y to a transformation temperature in Fe-Ir alloys (up to 40 wt pct Ir) is composition-dependent, varying from -900°C for pure iron to 0" to 100°C for Fe-40 pct Ir in an almost linear manner. The y to a transformation appears to be reversible,&apos; the transformation hysteresis width increasing with increasing iridium content. In a qualitative way, the composition dependence of the y to a (and vice versa) transformations appears similar to those in the widely studied Fe-Ni system. In that the y phase (in Fe-40 pct Ir) can transform at -1000C, it

Jan 1, 1967

By F. N. Rhines

I. An Outline of the Theory of the Sintering of Pure Metal Powders SINTERING may be defined as the process by which powders bond themselves into coherent bodies, usually, although not necessarily, under the influence of pressure and elevated temperature. For the sake of clarity and simplicity, the present survey will exclude from consideration the sintering of mixed or alloyed powders, with attendant complications, but at the risk of overlooking information of general applicability. Sintering in the presence of a liquid phase is thus automatically eliminated. The sintering of alloys involves much additional subject matter and deserves separate consideration. Since the literature of the subject is extensive and widely scattered, it will not be feasible to consider the contributions individually. Instead, the subject matter will be classified according to experimental observations and theory, and will be presented in summary form. It should be noted that the appended list of references does not constitute a complete bibliography; it includes only those works quoted below. More extensive bibliographies are included in several of the references; see particularly references 7, q, 28, 34, 38, 50, 52, 54 a "Bibliography on Powder Metallurgy" published by the Library of Congress and a pamphlet published by the Metals Disintegrating Co. entitled "The Field of Powder Metallurgy and Bibliography." II. Summary of Experimental Observations The following classified list is composed of general statements of established fact derived from the experimental results reported in the published literature. A few contested observations are included, because of their potential importance; these are labeled as such. Any satisfactory and complete theory must be capable of explaining all of the uncontested facts. Obviously, some important facts may be missing from this list and these may hold the key to the correct explanation of the sintering process, but the possible lack of such material should not deter attempts to understand the subject on the basis of what is available here. A. The Initial Bond at Room Temperature a. To a limited extent uncompressed powders and massive metals adhere at room temperature.28 Clean tin powder forms a weak "cake" on standing at room temperature, the strength increasing with time. Clean gold surfaces adhere on light contact,"&apos; as do those of many other substances, including nickel." b. Upon compression the strength of the bond is increased progressively.28 There is a limit of pressure

Jan 1, 1946