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By A. J. Williams, T. N. Croft, M. Cross

"The computational modelling of extrusion and forging processes is now well established. In this work a novel approach is described which utilises finite volume methods on unstructured meshes. This technique can be used to solve simultaneously for fluid flow, heat transfer and non-linear solid mechanics and their interactions. The approach involves the solution of free surface non-Newtonian fluid flow equations in an Eulerian context to track the behaviour of the workpiece and its extrusion/forging, and the solution of the solid mechanics equations in the Lagrangian context to predict the deformation/stress behaviour of the die. Some preliminary examples of this approach will be discussed.IntroductionThe computational modelling of extrusion and forging processes is now well established. Within the last 20 years the finite element method has become the most commonly used technique to simulate metal forming processes [1]-[4]. The Lagrangian and Eulerian type of formulation have been the two major approaches to this problem.Lagrangian methods are efficient and suitable for handling non-linear problems in which small strains prevail, boundary conditions do not change with the course of deformation, and where mesh distortion is not a critical factor in the analysis. Unfortunately, the above points are essential to any accurate metal forming analysis. The problems of mesh distortion and element entanglement pose a serious drawback on the use of such methods. Some automatic remeshing techniques have been developed for Lagrangian finite element analyses of metal forming problems [5]-[7]. However, these methods are not robust and efficient enough to remedy the mesh distortion problems in general. An alternative is to update the mesh manually but this is not always possible, and even when it is feasible it involves major interaction by the user. In addition, remeshing is usually applied to the whole domain which is not necessary and increases CPU time. The complexities associated with remeshing also affect the ability to parallelise the code."

Jan 1, 2001

Quartz, adularia and clay minerals from low-sulfidation epithermal veins at Hishikari were analyzed for their oxygen and hydrogen stable isotope compositions to establish the source of paleohydrothermal waters. Positive correlation between Au-Ag and adularia: quartz ratio, the presence of quartz pseudomorphs of bladed calcite, and Au-bearing smectite and vermiculite is indicative, but not definitive, evidence for the control of boiling on ore mineralization. Oxygen isotope equilibrium temperatures between quartz and adularia are about 220¦C and average homogenization temperatures of fluid inclusions vary between 190 to 210¦C. The calculated d18OH2O and dDH2O values (from quartz, adularia and early smectite) are consistent with paleohydrothermal fluids that were a mixture of magmatic and meteoric waters, or alternatively, the values could derive from heated meteoric water which had undergone isotope exchange during circulation through basement rock. Overall, d18Oqtz values in veins increase toward the north, most likely reflecting palaeo-fluid flow (source).

Jan 1, 2001

Open cast mining has been practiced in South Africa since the late1970s under near ideal geotechnical conditions. In the past decade, with the exhaustion of the traditional South African coal fields, geotechnical conditions have deteriorated. In addition, the nature of the open cast coal mining industry is changing from the conventional strip mining of virgin coal seams to the extraction of underground coal pillars by buffer blasted highwalls. These industry changes have resulted in the need to re-examine the manner in which geotechnical engineering is applied to highwall design. This paper proposes a geotechnical design rationale for open cast highwalls. Furthermore, the rationale takes cognizance of the various geotechnical hazards associated with conventional strip mining and pillar extraction by buffer blasted highwalls. The need to use geotechnical domain models and blasting geotechnics, as proactive tools for rock fall reduction, are also discussed.

Jan 1, 2001

By John A. Owsiany

The effect of longwall mining on streams and shallow aquifers has been the subject of numerous research studies for more than twenty years. As a result of these studies, it has become common to consider an overburden thickness of 400 feet as the lower limit at which longwall mining methods may be used with little or no effect on hydrologic systems. This paper presents the results of a study documenting the response of a large high order stream to shallow cover undermining by longwall methods in the northern Appalachian coalfield. The field site is located in a narrow stream valley where the overburden, composed primarily of limestone and sandstone units interbedded with shales and siltstones, ranges in thickness from 340 to 285 feet above the main bench of the Pittsburgh coal seam. Streamflow monitoring and monitor well measurements indicate that no significant loss zones or water table lowering resulted from undermining the stream or the adjacent valley bottom area. Additionally, hydrographs for shallow near-stream wells exhibit fluctuations related to natural seasonal variations, which are nearly identical to those observed in a non-undermined control well in the same watershed. Environmental factors affecting streamflow were monitored through the use of a control stream in an adjacent non-undermined watershed to differentiate between natural and mining induced changes in flow.

Jan 1, 2001

By J. Kern, M. Cain, T. Torries

Until recently, the generation of electricity was regulated in all states and the value of generation assets in a regulatory environment for ad valorem taxation were based largely on the book value of the plant plus the rate of return on capital allowed by the state regulatory agency. This method of appraising utility generation assets is inappropriate in a competitive environment because past capital expenditures are not relevant in a competitive environment. However, it is not clear what valuation methods are appropriate after restructuring. This paper identifies key problems and advantages of other appraisal methodologies and makes comments on various valuation and taxation methods.

Jan 1, 2001

By R. D. Hagni, P. A. Shivdasan

Cathodoluminescence microscopy (CLM) is uniquely applicable to the study of carbonatite-related fluorspar ore deposits. The mineralogy of the carbonatites, sodic and potassic fenites, marbles, quartzites, and fluorite ores are readily determined and characterized. Calcite, dolomite, apatite, fluorite were deposited dominantly under high temperature conditions and they exhibit strong cathodoluminescence (CL). Three types of carbonatites have been recognized at the Okorusu, Namibia carbonatite complex and fluorspar mines by field mapping and laboratory CLM. The main carbonatite intrusion is fine grained and consists mainly of calcite. A later phase of pegmatitic carbonatite consists of calcite, magnetite, Fe-rich pyroxene, apatite, and pyrochlore. Pyroxene carbonatites were recognized mainly through their study by CLM.

Jan 1, 2001

By A. V. Tarasov, V. M. Paretsky

"A mathematical model of the low-temperature (soft) nickel oxide reduction (SNOR) in a tubular kiln has been developed including an equation describing changes in the nickel oxide content of the solid material along the length of the kiln; an equation describing the changes in the content of reagents ensuring nickel reduction (i.e., hydrogen and carbon monoxide) in the gas phase along the kiln length; as well as the temperature along the kiln length. The kinetic relationships used for the development of the model had been determined based on experiments conducted specially for this purpose. Model investigations were conducted to determine the distribution of such parameters along the length of the kiln as the contents of metals oxides in the solids, partial pressure of hydrogen and carbon monoxide, variations of the temperature depending on the SNOR process conditions, including the kiln rotation speed. Based on the data obtained, a simplified regression model of the reducing roasting process was developed.IntroductionAt the SeveroNickel complex (Russia) a technology has been developed and is being introduced on a commercial scale for low-temperature (soft) nickel oxide reduction (SNOR) in tubular kilns.The SNOR process has a number of advantages, the main of which are the higher degree of metallization and higher chemical activity of reduced nickel oxide attributable to the lower fusion of the surface of the grains of reduced material due to lower process temperature (800-1000°C) and improved reducing ability of the gaseous phase. However, the fact that the process is conducted in a gaseous phase sets higher requirements to the consistency of its composition necessitating careful continuous monitoring and control of the main process parameters."

Jan 1, 2001

By Bryce T. Tripp

Utah produces a wide variety of industrial rock and mineral commodities, valued in 1998 at $534 million (28 percent of the total non-fuel mineral production of Utah). Major commodities produced in 1998 include: halite; potash and magnesium chloride; Portland cement; sand and gravel; car- bonates including lime, limestone, and dolomite; phosphate; crushed stone; clays; perlite; gypsum; and sulfur and sulfuric acid. Commodities produced in lesser amounts include: diatomite; pumice; silica; lightweight aggregate; gemstones, ornamental stone, and mineral and fossil specimens; byproduct sulfur and sulfuric acid; silica; and building stone. The years 1993 through 1998 were a period of steady growth in industrial rock and mineral production. However, some commodities have grown much more rapidly than others. The robust western U.S. economy has stimulated production of construction-related commodities like sand and gravel, raw materials for Portland cement, lime, and building stone, resulting in exploration for raw materials, development of new quarries, and expansion of existing plants. Noteworthy specific developments include: (1) opening of new aggregate operations and buyouts of small aggregate operations by large national and international firms, (2) expansion of a lime operation and two cement plants, and (3) development of several new gypsum mines. The future of the industrial minerals industry in Utah looks promising despite a more restrictive regulatory environment and a growing anti-development attitude among its citizens. While Utah has become less pro-development than it was prior to the 1990s, it is still moderate compared to strongly anti-development states, so companies have some motivation to choose Utah in their strategic mineral development plans. As long as the western states' economies continue to grow, Utah's industrial minerals industry should thrive.

Jan 1, 2001

By James P. Cooney

The global mining industry is in the process of redefining its activity and purpose in terms of sustainable development. This process is impelling a growing number of companies to engage their stakeholders on environmental and social issues. Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) have customarily acted as critics of the mining industry's performance. A new relationship between mining companies and NGOs is emerging in the context of sustainable development, ranging from dialogue to joint action. If positive interaction among mining companies and NGOs is to succeed, clear terms of engagement must be articulated, and measurable progress toward achieving both corporate and NW objectives must be demonstrated. The experience of Placer Dome is illustrative of the rewards and challenges of engaging with NGOs.

Jan 1, 2001

By B. S. Pierce

The National Coal Resource Assessment – 2000 project was a multi-year effort by the U.S. Geological Survey to identify, characterize, and assess the coal resources that will supply a major part of the Nation’s energy needs during the 21st century. The purpose of the USGS National Coal Resource Assessment (NCRA) was to (1) digitally assess selected coal beds and zones that will be the most important in the next few decades, (2) create publically available stratigraphic, geochemical, and geographic information system (GIS) databases to answer a variety of questions of importance to government, industry and public decision makers, and (3) provide interpretive geologic and geochemical information for the primary coal resources of the Nation. Five priority regions were assessed: the Appalachian Basin, Illinois Basin, Gulf Coast, Illinois Basin, and Northern Rocky Mountains and Great Plains. The NCRA was a cooperative effort between the USGS and a number of State geological surveys in these coal-bearing regions. A study of coal resources on Federal lands was also conducted. Adequate energy supplies and the efficient use of those supplies are critical to the economic well being of a country. Affordable and reliable coal supplies are essential to the interests of our national and local policymakers. Policy makers require a range of information on the energy supply, as well as the economic and environmental issues associated with that energy source and its use. Formulation of an effective national energy policy and development of energy resources requires that we understand the geology, distribution, quality, and size of the national energy endowment.

Jan 1, 2001

By Edgardo Fogli, Mario Lampiano, Antonio Nicola

The project is located in the northern region of the People’s Republic of China and was awarded to Impregilo, as sponsor of the Wan Long Joint Venture, in September1997. The project consists of four tunnels for a total length of 88,700 m, with an excavation diameter of about 4.9 m. The lining is made of honeycomb pre-cast segments, connected by PVC dowels and the joints are sealed with elastomeric gaskets. The geology is mainly Limestone, Dolomite and Sandstone. Karst cavities are abundant and are often in-filled with plastic red clay. This has adversely affected the TBM’s progress. Four double shield telescopic TBMs were mobilized to cope with the very tight construction schedule and, at the end of November 2000, more than 80% of the tunnel has been bored. The article analyses the TBMs’ productions in the various geological conditions and the results of different technical solutions adopted at the project.

Jan 1, 2001

By H. Reed

The precious metal mining industry in Nevada handles and generates a certain amount of hazardous materials and waste on a regular basis. These products range from processing material additives to wastes from laboratory testing, heap leaching, and hydrocarbon treatment and disposal. The volume of materials and wastes is dependent upon the amount of ore processed. Handling, treatment and disposal is dependent on the type of material handled and the waste generated. Owing to the health and safety concerns and due to the existing regulations that control handling and disposal of hazardous materials and wastes, the mining industry is obligated to comply with all applicable requirements for proper handling of these products. Plus, in an effort to minimize any impacts from this effort, the industry is continually looking for alternative methods to accomplish these requirements and to also minimize costs. This paper will discuss the general, and in some cases the specific conditions, by which the industry is coping with the issue and efforts to minimize any impacts from handling, treatment and disposal for hazardous materials and wastes. The subject of compliance with the Toxic Release Inventory (TRI) requirements and bio-treatment of wastes and other technologies will be discussed.

Jan 1, 2001

By B. Mishra, A. Staley, D. Kirkpatrick

The major waste product of the alkaline extraction of alumina from bauxite [Bayer Process] is known as red-mud. Approximately, a ton of red-mud is produced for every two tons of bauxite mined. The red-mud produced from Jamaican bauxite is rich in hematite, alumina and titanium oxide. It has been shown that over 90-wt. pct. alumina can be recovered from red-mud by soda-ash sintering and caustic leaching. Hematite can be carbothermically reduced with a degree of metallization of over 94 pct resulting in attempts for magnetic separation. These separations are desirable in the notion that there is no waste product generated from this type of processing and consequently an opportunity for complete utilization of the waste material. Conversely, the pre-separated material could be charged through the tuyeres in an iron blast furnace or smelted to produce pig iron. If smelted, the concentration of titanium oxide in the slag will be significantly high justifying its recovery by established acid-leach process. This paper describes the results of alumina recovery and the plans for titanium oxide recovery from red-mud. In addition, the situation of ongoing efforts in iron extraction, particularly, the method of magnetic separation of the reduced material. The problems associated with the use of reduced red-mud as an alternative to direct-reduced iron [DRI] has also been discussed. Critical assessment of the recovery sequence chosen for the products has been described based on economics.

Jan 1, 2001

Australia has a long history of underground mining. Even withadvances in open cut mining equipment, techniques andeconomics, many orebodies are still best mined by undergroundmeans. In addition, modern exploration tools are æuncoveringÆorebodies that are at increasing depths. South African mines arecurrently producing from below 3 km, and developing down to5 km depths û it is likely that Australian mines will also becomemuch deeper over the next 20 years. One of the most significanttechnical challenges in deep mines is the problem of heat.Community expectations and legislated standards continue todrive operations towards improving the working conditions inmines. The hazards and costs associated with chronic hotworking conditions (heat illness, poor safety, poor productivity,higher operating costs and poor morale) are also becomingincreasingly recognised (Brake, Donoghue and Bates, 1998). Theexposure of miners to many other occupational hazards has beenreduced over the past 50 years. However, despite air-conditionedcabins greatly reducing the heat stress on mobile plant operators,there are still many Australian mine workers subject to levels ofthermal stress that existed a century ago. There are severalreasons for this, including a frequently-poor understanding of thephysiology of working in heat by mine management, no agreedmining code of practice for working in heat, the lack of a robust,practical-sized instrument to measure heat stress, the costpressures on the industry and, to some extent, deep-seatedtraditional management and worker practices. Howeversignificant progress has been made in many of these areas (Brakeand Bates, in press), with the net result that there is likely to be a trend towards installation of refrigeration of some form in manyAustralian mines in the future. This will add directly to the costof operation, but will also have direct and indirect benefits,including cost benefits. It should also be noted that Australia isnot at the forefront of adopting practices to manage temperaturesin the workplace: South African metal mines usually haverefrigerated cooling, and Canadian mines spend large sums onheating, with heating costs (averaged over a full year) of up to$A1 per tonne mined (Bandopadhyay et al, 1997). The history of mine refrigeration dates back to 1919 when thefirst plant was installed at Morro Velho, Brazil. By 1965, the totalinstalled capacity (worldwide) reached about 100 MW(R)i. Since 1965 the growth in mine refrigeration capacity has beenexponential, with a doubling every six or seven years (Howes andNixon, 1997). South Africa is by far the largest user of minerefrigeration, with over 300 refrigeration machines installed. This paper discusses the key design issues associated with theapplication of refrigeration in underground metal or coal mines.Whilst the emphasis is on large, surface plants, small, surface orunderground refrigeration plants can also be very effective in thecorrect application and many of the principles of design andoperation are the same.

Jan 1, 2001

By K. Ono

A new process for extraction of titanium metal from its oxide is demonstrated. In this process, row material to be reduced is titanium oxide synthesized from ilmenite. The reducing agent is the Ca+CaCI2 two-phase mixture. TItanium is elaborated in the medium consisted of liquid Ca, Caq and solid TI02 at the temperature range 1200 to l300K by means of mixing mechanically the ingredients in the reactor into a smooth paste. Fluidity of the feed which enables continuous scheme depends on the CaCl2 content. The oxygen level of the reduced titanium is the range 500 to 1000 mass ppm varying with the operational conditions. The Ca+CaCI2 reducing agent is taken out from the electrolysis of CaC12 at 11401(, and this CaCl2 is produced by aqueous chemistry conversion using Cl2 gas recycled from the electrolysis.

Jan 1, 2001

By W. G. Davenport

This chapter examines three minor influences on flash smelting's industrial oxygen and oil requirements, i.e.: (a) recycle of molten converter slag to the flash furnace (b) gangue oxides and carbonates (e,g, Ah03, CaC03) in the flash furnace feed (c) minor sulfides (e.g. NiS} in the flash furnace feed. It then examines the. sensitivity of our flash furnace calculations to previously ignored aspects of smelting chemistry -Cu, S and Fe304 in slag and 0 in matte.

Jan 1, 2001

Hydrometallurgy has a history of over 300 years with copper leachingand cementation having been exploited in Spain as far back as 1670.Since then, hydrometallurgy has become an integral, expanding branch of extractive metallurgy. This paper reviews major developments in hydrometallurgy over thepast century with emphasis on recent commercial developments and their impact on the mining and metals industries. The environment in which these developments has taken place has changed significantly in the past two decades and many factors, often non-technical, have emerged as constraints on the operation of existing plants and the expansion and development of new hydrometallurgical operations. Finally, a number of possible new developments that will shape thefuture of hydrometallurgy in the new millennium are discussed,particularly as they relate to the assimilation of technical advances in other areas of science and engineering. The impact of current trends in the education of hydrometallurgists and the provision of research in support of these future developments is also addressed.

Jan 1, 2001

By Steven W. Hunt, Gregory C. Baker, Glen J. Rorison

Microtunneling methods were utilized beneath pile-supported clarifier basins to replace settlement damaged sludge drain lines at the Jones Island Wastewater Treatment Plant in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. To minimize the risk of blockage and expensive recovery of a microtunnel boring machine against pipe piles or construction debris, a Soltau RVS 80 was utilized. This machine allowed the alignment to be initially bored with guided 114-mm diameter rods to ensure proper alignment and lack of obstructions. Casing pipe was then installed by jacking 1-m long, 305-mm diameterclay pipe along the rods and behind an auger head. This case history also discusses how 2.4-m diameter precast concrete pipe was used as a one-pass sinking caisson for workshafts and new cleanout manholes.

Jan 1, 2001

By Rachel Bernau

Water wells, aquifers, and pipelines rarely incur damage from nearby blast vibrations. Extensive ground vibrations may cause a drop in the water table thereby changing an aquifer’s structure or drying up a well. Studies on the reactions of aquifers and water wells have been performed in Montana, North Dakota, and the Appalachia Coal Region. All of these studies reported that vibrations did not change the properties of the monitored aquifers and water wells. Rather, evidence suggests that any incurred damage was caused by block motion and downsloping.

Jan 1, 2001

The paper deals with the results of dynamic tests carried out on a range of surface support liners consisting of combinations of mesh (various types), shotcrete, and wire rope lacing. The testing was carried out over the period 1993 to 1998. The dynamic testing method made use of drop weight impact loading of test samples which attempted to simulate realistic in situ conditions, and the range of loading imposed was equivalent to small to severe rockburst conditions. The results of the testing provide quantitative data, in the form of input energy, which is relevant for support design and for the choice of support types appropriate for situations in which significant mine-induced seismicity occurs or is expected to occur. In addition to the wire mesh and shotcrete liner systems tested, estimates of energy capacity are made for other, untested, systems.

Jan 1, 2001