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By Charles Clayton

CAST-STEEL runners, while not interesting from a commercial standpoint, furnish valuable material for microscopic study. Foley1 found not only the usual ingot structure, but zones of Widmannstattian structure, which he explains as due to differential crystallization. The writer, in examining nickel-steel runners, found a type of pro-eutectoid ferrite that is unusual and most probably new. The runner in question was 8.75 cm. (3.5 in.) in diameter and analyzed at its center 2.69 per cent, nickel and 0.350 per cent. carbon and at its edge 2.62 per cent. nickel and 0.359 per cent. carbon. The macrostructure, which is the usual type, is shown in Figs. 1 and 2, which are a cross-section and the longitudinal surface, respectively. Slight segregation of ferrite can be seen near the center of the segment and at other points near the edges of polyhedral grains. Stead's reagent brings out the dendritic structure within the grains as shown in Figs. 3 and 4. This texture is what would be expected of such a steel. Figs. 5 to 10 show the peculiar swirls of pro-eutectoid ferrite, the finding of which prompted this paper. These swirls, or eddies, if such a term can be applied, occur in all parts of- the runner and in all parts of the individual grains. I he tipper left-hand figure shows this ferrite at a grain boundary; the middle left-hand figure shows the inner portion of a grain; and the lower left-hand figure shows these swirls at the edge of a grain which is also the outer edge of the runner. Straight-lined ferrite associated with swirls is found in the areas of Figs. 11 and 12. The texture of the carbon-bearing constituent of the runner is shown to- some extent in Fig. 12, the pearlite being very fine or sorbitic. Higher magnification does not bring out any new features either in the peculiar ferrite or in the pearlite. Figs. 13 and 14, at 240 diameters, show the curved and straight-lined ferrite.

Jan 3, 1920

By Alexander Anderson

In many oil fields a great variation in the production of adjoining wells has long been observed, and a certain proportion of dry holes, situated between prolific producers, has been regarded as normal without thorough investigation as to cause. Similarly, an occasional prolific producer has been found in a part of a field where all other holes have proven disappointing. Adjoining wells which showed an unreasonable difference in production have been surveyed, and the bottom of the poorest producer has been found to have lost sufficient vertical depth, through its drift, to diminish seriously its penetration in the oil zone. Again, the bottom of the good producer has been found to he more favorably situated by its migration up structure. Surveying of wells in California fields has shown many instances where the dry hole has drifted far off the structure to such a degree that no amount of deepening could ever convert it into an oil well. In other cases, edge wells have been found to drift into the field. At this time, in California, the surveying of oil wells is beginning to he accepted as a routine part of operating procedure. Some operators are surveying all of their new wells and, in some of the recently discovered fields, this practice is providing invaluable assistance in methodical development. The information that has been obtained from the surveying of many wells has convinced most operators that it pays to give careful attention to the drilling of wells. Chews are now usually cautioned to avoid reckless competition with each other. Whereas, formerly, certain companies demanded a large footage from their drillers, they now issue orders that a very moderate speed in drilling shall he maintained and that every care be taken to avoid practices likely to cause excessive deviation of the hole frorn vertical. As a result of these new instructions to drilling crews, a distinct decline in the average drift of the wells drilled by these operators has taken place and fewer dry holes are being drilled from good locations. To the petroleum engineer and the geologist, oil-well surveys provide the necessary data required for the construction of the correct cross-

Jan 1, 1929

The following is an incomplete list of members and guests who called at Institute headquarters during the period Feb. 10, 1918 to Mar. 10, 1918: W. G. Anderson, St. John, N. B., Canada. Charles E. Locke, Boston, Mass. L. M. Banks, Camp Meade, Md. E. T. Lednum, Joplin, Mo. P. E. Barbour, Albany, N. Y. C.' K. McDonald, Washington, D. C. Alan M. Bateman, New Haven, Conn. C. T. Malcolmson, Chicago, Ill. Graham Bright, Pittsburgh, Pa. Stuart B. Marshall, Badin, N. C. J. F. Callbreath, Washington, D. C. T. C. Merriman, New Haven, Conn. J. E. S. Clark, Riverside. Cal. Arvid E. Nissen, Gary, Ind. G. H. Clevenger, Palo Alto, Cal. Herbert G. Officer, Conway, S. C. George C. Crossley, Trenton, N. J. J. E. Parker, Bulawayo, Rhodesia, S. Afr. R. H. Eagles, Palmerton, Pa. Francis R. Pyne, Elizabeth, N, J. Charles Enzian, Pottsville, Pa. Alfred Hull Ramage, Joplin, Mo. Albert H. Fay, Washington, D. C. H. H. Stoek, Urbana, Ill. David B. Gemmill, Crown King, Ariz. G. M. Taylor, Colorado Springs; Colo. Ronald Harris, London, Ont., Canada. Charles Tubby, St. Paul, Minn. Wm. J. Hayes, Colombia. So. America. J. B. Tyrrell, Toronto, Canada. B. B. Hood, Chrome, N. J. Edmund W. Westervelt, Ymir, B. C. 0. P. Hood, Pittsburgh, Pa. Carl Zapffe, Brainerd, Minn. H. M. LaFollette, LaFollette, Tenn. W. S. Boyd, formerly superintendent of mines of the Ray Consolidated Copper Co., has been appointed assistant general manager. William Campbell, Professor of Metallurgy, at Columbia University, is acting as metallurgist at the New York Navy Yard.

Jan 4, 1918

The following list comprises the names of those persons who became. members during the period Oct. 10, 1919, to Nov. 10, 1919. ABELL, 0. J., Pres. & Treas., Abell-Howe Co., 332 South Michigan Ave.; Chicago, Ill. ADAMI, ARTHUR E., Asst. Prof. of Min. Engrg., Montana State School of Mines,Butte, Mont. BASSETT, R. H Chief Engr., Hanna Ore Min. Co., Hibbing, Minn. BOZA, HECTOR J., Cons. Engr., Boza Aizcorbe Hermanos, Box 106, Lima, Peru. BROWN, HAROLD P., Cons. Concrete Engr 120 Liberty St., New York, N. Y. BUCHANAN, W. A Mgr., Meteor Mine, Slocan City, B. C., Canada. CAMERON, JAMES A Supt., Ellsworth Collieries Co., Ellsworth Pa. CARPENTER, CRANSTON HOWE, Electro-Met. Engr., General Engrg. Division, Westinghouse Electric & Mfg. Co., East Pittsburgh, Pa. CASTLETON, GEORGE T Assayer, Custom Office, Box 122, Eureka, Utah. CHAFFIN, C. E., Eastern Mgr., General Engineering Co., 120 Broadway, New York-, N. Y. CLARK, WALTER R., Wks. Mgr., Bridgeport Brass Co., 1875 Park Ave., Bridgeport, Conn. CLARKE, ERNEST E., Min. Engr., Vinegar Hill Zinc Co., 419 S. Court St., Platteville, Wis. COOLIDGE, E. B., Mgr., Spotted Horse Mine, St. Paul Montana Min. Co., Maiden, Mont. CORTELYOU, ARTHUR P., Resident Mgr., Potrero Min Co. Mocorito, Sinaloa, Mexico. COTTINGHAM, KENNETH, Pet. Engr., Halter & Robitaille Delmonico Bldg.,Fifth Ave. & 44th St., New York, N. Y. CREW, J. A Mgr., Research Dept., Pittsburgh Steel Co., Monessen, Pa. CUMMINGS, LISTER M., Efficiency Engr., Copper Queen Branch, Phelps-Dodge Corpn., Box 1539, Bisbee, Ariz. DANFORTH, GEORGE L., JR., Asst. Gen'l Supt., Illinois Steel Co., South Works, South Chicago, Ill.

Jan 12, 1919

By A. R. Troiano, A. B. Greninger

There is need for an adequate working hypothesis that would describe at least qualitatively the crystallographic mechanism for the transformation from austenite to martensite in steel. A general theory would not only be of great assistance in the correlation of existing data and in planning future experimentation, but would also form the basis for an eventual explanation of the property changes that accompany lattice transformations. The mechanism of martensite formation described in the following pages is the outcome of two new experimental determinations: (1) the accurate evaluation of the lattice relationship between austenite and individual crystals of martensite, and (2) the measurement and analysis of the change in position that a volume of austenite undergoes when it transforms into a crystal of martensite. For this latter study, the stereographic analysis of shear was employed; this method greatly simplifies the solution of lattice-shear problems, and some space is devoted to its description. Lattiice Relationships and Habits PREVIOUS WORK The lattice relationships between austenite and martensite in carbon steels have been studied by Kurdjurnow-and Sachs,' and by Wassermann;2 and in iron-nickel alloys by Nishiyama.3 Wassermann,2 and Mehl and Derge.4 The studies by Kurdjumow and Sachs and by Wassermann were made on single (austenite) crystals of quenched 1.4 pct carbon steel, and the results of these two independent studies agree closely with the postulated lattice relationships: (III)r||(0ll)a [101]r [111]a [1] Both Nishiyama and Wassermann worked with an alloy of iron plus 30 pct nickel (all austenite at room temperature), and "martensitic alpha" was formed by cooling in liquid air. They agree that the lattice relationships for these conditions are: (lll)r||(011)a [112]r[011]a [2] Mehl and Derge worked with a range of iron-nickel alloy compositions centered about 30 pct nickel. They concluded that when the transformation takes place near room temperature or above, relationship [l] holds, but if the same specimen is made to transform at -195°C, relationship [2] obtains;intermediate temperatures evidently produced a combination of these two relationships. Sachs and co-worker~,1,7 as well as Nishiyama,3 have proposed transformation mechanisms for martensite formation.* Both of the mechanisms picture the transformation as initiated by shearing movements along the octahedral [Ill] plane of austenite, followed by suitable expansion and contraction to complete the transformation. These mechanisms have been described and commented upon by Mehl, Barrett, and Smith,8 Mehl and Derge,4 Wassermann,2 and others, and generally accepted by investigators in this field. Greninger and Troiano9 have recently published the results of a detailed study of the shapes and orientation habits of martensite crystals in plain-carbon and nickel steels. They found that, contrary to previous assumptions, martensite plates form not along the octahedral planes but along austenite planes of very high indices; these results were in line with those of previous studies of martensite reactions in nonferrous alloy systems by Greninger and coworkers.6,10 Greninger and Troiano concluded that the transformation theories of Kurdjumow and Sachsl and of Nishiyama3 are untenable. Phragmén11 reached a similar conclusion. EXPERlMENTAL METHODS The object of this particular study was the evaluation of (1) lattice relationship between austenite and martensite, and (2) relationship between the martensite lattice and the martensite plate. The technique used for solving these problems was similar to that used by Greninger6 on martensitic structures in 8 copper-aluminum alloys. Briefly, the method consists of grinding and polishing a specimen on a surface parallel to an individual martensite plate and thus exposing a single martensite crystal for an area of l to 3 mm. The orientation of this exposed martensite crystal is then determined by means of a back-reflection Laue X ray pattern.12 Another pattern is obtained from the matrix crystal, and a stereo-graphic plot of data from these two patterns then provides the solution to the problem. It is necessary to repeat this process on several crystals in order to determine whether or not the solution is unique.

Jan 1, 1950

By Carl E. Swartz

Although a number of articles appeared during the war advocating the use of cadmium in lead-tin solders, very little information of value can be found in the literature regarding the properties of solders containing cadmium. In most of the published articles the cadmium seems to have been considered merely as a partial substitute for tin in a tin-lead alloy rather than as an essential constituent of a ternary alloy. The primary object of the substitution of cadmium for tin was to lessen the amount of tin required, at a time when the latter was scarce and high-priced, and thus to produce a cheaper solder. While this object was accomplished, the new properties resulting from a change from a binary lead-tin alloy to a ternary lead-tin-cadmium alloy were not given proper consideration in many cases. For the past few years, the American Smelting & Refining Co. has been marketing a very considerable amount of cadmium in the form of lead-tin-cadmium alloys for use as solders for certain special purposes, and the successful use of these solders suggested that if more extensive knowledge were available concerning the properties of lead-tin-cadmium alloys of various compositions their field of usefulness might be materially extended. The investigation described in the present paper was undertaken to obtain this information and, by means of tests under conditions approaching those of practical use, to determine the suitability of cadmium solders for various purposes. Characteristics and Requirements of Solders in General General Physical Properties.—When cast into bars, solder should present a smooth and bright appearance free from oxide inclusions and bubbles. Ductility should be as great as possible without sacrificing tensile strength, and vice versa. Hardness and specific gravity are not of any great importance. Melting Characteristics.—The melting or solidification range is important. This statement applies both to the extent of the range and to the actual temperature at which complete solidification occurs. A rather narrow solidification range is desirable in soft solders in order that solidification may take place quickly. The solder should have high fluidity at temperatures only slightly above its melting range. For a

By H. J. R. Way

The work to be described was undertaken at various periods from 1937 to 1939 on the Busia gold field, in the eastern province of Uganda. It was decided to examine the possibility of reef prospection by the resistivity method, for it was not known how far the usually disintegrated nature of most reefs in the ubiquitous laterite near the surface would obscure indications obtained by resistivity traverses. The work at the commencement was therefore largely experimental, but the results obtained thereby were satisfactory, and a survey was started at the Government closed area at Amonikakine. With the limited time and resources at the writer's disposal, it was not possible to complete the survey to his satisfaction or to follow up exhaustively all the geophysical indications, but some of the results of the experimental work and the survey were of sufficient interest to be worth recording; in particular the relation between the width of reef, electrode separation and shape of the curve, and the interference effect of constant separation curves over zones of float are significant and useful. Three new veins were located, but only one contained sufficient gold to warrant detailed prospection. This was called the Geophysical reef, and was uncovered over a strike distance of 1140 ft., and there are indications that it extends over a distance of 1990 ft. These results and the recom- mendations consequent therefrom were embodied in a special report to the Uganda Geological Survey. History OF the Field The Busia field is in the southeastern corner of Uganda near the Kenya-Uganda border, and is about 17 miles north of the northeastern corner of Lake Victoria. Gold was first discovered in the area in the stream beds by Davies1,2 in 1932. Subsequently numerous small alluvial claims were worked by prospectors and the area was prospected for reef by a company for periods varying from three to nine months, but was finally abandoned, as the results were considered unfavorable. Further prospecting by the Geological Survey in 1935-1936 under Davies8 and later under the writer4 uncovered three reefs with sufficient gold values to be of economic interest. These were finally taken over by a company known as Borderland Syndicate, which still owns the area, and from September 1937 to the end of 1941 about 13,000 oz. of gold was extracted from reefs of the area proved by the Geological Survey. Opencast mining operations are still proceeding (February 1943). The Amonikakine area lies to the immediate north of that of Borderland Syndicate. A certain amount of prospecting had been done when the writer started work there. As a result of his report, this area was taken over by another syndicate, but little further work was accomplished before it ceased operating because of difficulties of wartime working.

Jan 1, 1946

By H. J. R. Way

The work to be described was undertaken at various periods from 1937 to 1939 on the Busia gold field, in the eastern province of Uganda. It was decided to examine the possibility of reef prospection by the resistivity method, for it was not known how far the usually disintegrated nature of most reefs in the ubiquitous laterite near the surface would obscure indications obtained by resistivity traverses. The work at the commencement was therefore largely experimental, but the results obtained thereby were satisfactory, and a survey was started at the Government closed area at Amonikakine. With the limited time and resources at the writer's disposal, it was not possible to complete the survey to his satisfaction or to follow up exhaustively all the geophysical indications, but some of the results of the experimental work and the survey were of sufficient interest to be worth recording; in particular the relation between the width of reef, electrode separation and shape of the curve, and the interference effect of constant separation curves over zones of float are significant and useful. Three new veins were located, but only one contained sufficient gold to warrant detailed prospection. This was called the Geophysical reef, and was uncovered over a strike distance of 1140 ft., and there are indications that it extends over a distance of 1990 ft. These results and the recom- mendations consequent therefrom were embodied in a special report to the Uganda Geological Survey. History OF the Field The Busia field is in the southeastern corner of Uganda near the Kenya-Uganda border, and is about 17 miles north of the northeastern corner of Lake Victoria. Gold was first discovered in the area in the stream beds by Davies1,2 in 1932. Subsequently numerous small alluvial claims were worked by prospectors and the area was prospected for reef by a company for periods varying from three to nine months, but was finally abandoned, as the results were considered unfavorable. Further prospecting by the Geological Survey in 1935-1936 under Davies8 and later under the writer4 uncovered three reefs with sufficient gold values to be of economic interest. These were finally taken over by a company known as Borderland Syndicate, which still owns the area, and from September 1937 to the end of 1941 about 13,000 oz. of gold was extracted from reefs of the area proved by the Geological Survey. Opencast mining operations are still proceeding (February 1943). The Amonikakine area lies to the immediate north of that of Borderland Syndicate. A certain amount of prospecting had been done when the writer started work there. As a result of his report, this area was taken over by another syndicate, but little further work was accomplished before it ceased operating because of difficulties of wartime working.

Jan 1, 1946

By Richard D. Mills

Throughout the mining industry, many companies perform sophisticated business and financial analyses of proposed capital investments. However, once the project is approved, it is never reevaluated. At best, there is an attempt to control capital costs and minimize overruns. The post-installation appraisal, a formalized review of investment performance, may prove helpful. Typical Project Review A typical capital investment is approved after business and financial benefits have been reviewed with management.* The financial data shown to management often include a net income statement, cash flow analysis and summary economic data similar to those shown in Table 1 overleaf. These financials report the expected impact of the project on the corporation financial statements. This project is a rudimentary example of a capital investment decision. An actual project would undergo a more sophisticated analysis incorporating depletion benefits, deferred taxes and a detailed cost breakdown. The example project has several financial benefits that could result in management approval. For example, it provides an immediate net income benefit to the company, generates positive cash flows every year of the project life and has a discounted cash flow rate of return of 25 percent. However, it also has the disadvantage of a long payback period. A sensitivity analysis would show which areas of the analysis have the greatest impacts on profitability. Post-Installation Program Objectives The post-installation appraisal goes beyond the analysis shown in Table 1 by comparing actual results to those projected in the original economic analysis. The post-installation program has three primary objectives: 1. To provide a periodic performance review of major spending programs. 2. To review decision-making and evaluation procedures. 3. To provide a means of controlling individual project investments. The first major function of the post-installation program is the periodic review of actual performance of projects and investment programs, identifying those factors which proved critical to the health of investments. This review will serve to keep management abreast of progress, provide a comparison of actual performance against expectations, and provide valuable information that can be used for improving future economics. The second major function of the program is to perform a continuous review of the decision-making process. This includes testing of evaluation procedures, forecasting techniques, and logic used in making decisions. An information system should be set up whereby original evaluations and historical performance data gathered under the appraisal program are documented for use by evaluators and management when assessing past and future investment proposals. Such data should be particularly useful in evaluating new and developing types of operations and in activities where companies repeatedly reinvest. The primary purpose of this feedback system is to sharpen estimates to assure that they are realistic and attainable. The appraisal program also provides assurance that consistent evaluation procedures are being used throughout a company, leading to improved procedures

Jan 1, 1985

By Warren E. Wilson

The transportation of solids in pipe lines is a matter of deep concern in many fields of engineering. Much experimental and theoretical work has been done in an effort to devise means of designing pipe lines that will satisfactorily transport given solid loads, but there remain many unanswered questions in this field. The present discussion will be confined to a rather narrow portion of this field and will endeavor to point out certain factors that may well be considered when comparing the relative economy of various installations. The data have been presented previously but a new interpretation was prompted by a suggestion in a paper by Professor O'Brien,1 of the University of California, that the friction work per pound of dry material should be considered in determining the relative efficiency of various installations. This method of considering relative economy in various pipe lines leads to some rather unexpected conclusions, especially with reference to the economy of large pipe sizes. A previous suggestion by the writer3 concerning the economy of a rather peculiar type of installation is strengthened. It is not believed that the considerations set forth herein apply directly in the case of dredge lines, where economy is largely a matter of a high rate of pumping in order to reduce the unit overhead charge. However, it is believed that some value may be gained from these considerations in cases involving the disposal of a fixed amount of solids per unit time with a minimum expenditure of energy and at a low cost for replacement of worn pipes. Such situations are not uncommon in the disposal of mill tailings and the disposal of solids deposited from irrigation waters. It was found that data leading to general conclusions for various pipe sizes were not available but certain definite trends are indicated and methods of analyzing available data are presented in the hope that they may be of assistance in preparing engineering estimates on designs of pipe lines of the type described above. Energy Requirements Carrying out the idea contained in ' Professor O'Brien's paper concerning the method of computing energy required to transport solids, the following analysis leads to some rather interesting conclusions. Let us represent: Solids load in term of mass per unit time by W Ratio of mass of suspended solids to total mass of mixture flowing by p Volume rate of flow of mixture by Q Length of pipe by L slope of energy grade line by s Mass per unit volume of solids by m. Mass Per unit volume of liquid by mi Mass per unit volume of mixture by mm We then have as an expression for the solids load: W = pQmm The work done per unit mass, P, on the mixture to move it along the pipe the

Jan 1, 1948

By Warren E. Wilson

The transportation of solids in pipe lines is a matter of deep concern in many fields of engineering. Much experimental and theoretical work has been done in an effort to devise means of designing pipe lines that will satisfactorily transport given solid loads, but there remain many unanswered questions in this field. The present discussion will be confined to a rather narrow portion of this field and will endeavor to point out certain factors that may well be considered when comparing the relative economy of various installations. The data have been presented previously but a new interpretation was prompted by a suggestion in a paper by Professor O'Brien,1 of the University of California, that the friction work per pound of dry material should be considered in determining the relative efficiency of various installations. This method of considering relative economy in various pipe lines leads to some rather unexpected conclusions, especially with reference to the economy of large pipe sizes. A previous suggestion by the writer3 concerning the economy of a rather peculiar type of installation is strengthened. It is not believed that the considerations set forth herein apply directly in the case of dredge lines, where economy is largely a matter of a high rate of pumping in order to reduce the unit overhead charge. However, it is believed that some value may be gained from these considerations in cases involving the disposal of a fixed amount of solids per unit time with a minimum expenditure of energy and at a low cost for replacement of worn pipes. Such situations are not uncommon in the disposal of mill tailings and the disposal of solids deposited from irrigation waters. It was found that data leading to general conclusions for various pipe sizes were not available but certain definite trends are indicated and methods of analyzing available data are presented in the hope that they may be of assistance in preparing engineering estimates on designs of pipe lines of the type described above. Energy Requirements Carrying out the idea contained in ' Professor O'Brien's paper concerning the method of computing energy required to transport solids, the following analysis leads to some rather interesting conclusions. Let us represent: Solids load in term of mass per unit time by W Ratio of mass of suspended solids to total mass of mixture flowing by p Volume rate of flow of mixture by Q Length of pipe by L slope of energy grade line by s Mass per unit volume of solids by m. Mass Per unit volume of liquid by mi Mass per unit volume of mixture by mm We then have as an expression for the solids load: W = pQmm The work done per unit mass, P, on the mixture to move it along the pipe the

Jan 1, 1948

By Warren E. Wilson

The transportation of solids in pipe lines is a matter of deep concern in many fields of engineering. Much experimental and theoretical work has been done in an effort to devise means of designing pipe lines that will satisfactorily transport given solid loads, but there remain many unanswered questions in this field. The present discussion will be confined to a rather narrow portion of this field and will endeavor to point out certain factors that may well be considered when comparing the relative economy of various installations. The data have been presented previously but a new interpretation was prompted by a suggestion in a paper by Professor O'Brien,' of the University of California, that the friction work per pound of dry material should be considered in determining the relative efficiency of various installations. This method of considering relative economy in various pipe lines leads to some rather unexpected conclusions, especially with reference to the economy of large pipe sizes. A previous suggestion by the writer concerning the economy of a rather peculiar type of installation is strengthened. It is not believed that the considerations set forth herein apply directly in the case of dredge lines, where economy is largely a matter of a high rate of pumping in order to reduce the unit overhead charge. However, it is believed that some value may be gained from these considerations in cases involving the disposal of a fixed amount of solids per unit time with a minimum expenditure of energy and at a low cost for replacement of worn pipes. Such situations are not uncommon in the disposal of mill tailings and the disposal of solids deposited from irrigation waters. It was found that data leading to general conclusions for various pipe sizes were not available but certain definite trends are indicated and methods of analyzing available data are presented in the hope that they may be of assistance in preparing engineering estimates on designs of pipe lines of the type described above. Energy Requirements Carrying out the idea contained in Professor O'Brien's paper concerning the method of computing energy required to transport solids, the following analysis leads to some rather interesting conclusions. Let us represent: Solids load in terms of mass per unit time by w Ratio of mass of suspended solids to total mass of mixture flowing by p Volume rate of flow of mixture by Q Length of pipe by L Slope of energy grade line by s Mass per unit volume of solids by m8. Mass per unit volume of liquid by mi Mass per unit volume of mixture by 11 We then have as an expression for the solids load: w = pqmm The work done per unit mass, p, on the mixture to move it along the pipe the

Jan 1, 1947

By Warren E. Wilson

The transportation of solids in pipe lines is a matter of deep concern in many fields of engineering. Much experimental and theoretical work has been done in an effort to devise means of designing pipe lines that will satisfactorily transport given solid loads, but there remain many unanswered questions in this field. The present discussion will be confined to a rather narrow portion of this field and will endeavor to point out certain factors that may well be considered when comparing the relative economy of various installations. The data have been presented previously but a new interpretation was prompted by a suggestion in a paper by Professor O'Brien,' of the University of California, that the friction work per pound of dry material should be considered in determining the relative efficiency of various installations. This method of considering relative economy in various pipe lines leads to some rather unexpected conclusions, especially with reference to the economy of large pipe sizes. A previous suggestion by the writer concerning the economy of a rather peculiar type of installation is strengthened. It is not believed that the considerations set forth herein apply directly in the case of dredge lines, where economy is largely a matter of a high rate of pumping in order to reduce the unit overhead charge. However, it is believed that some value may be gained from these considerations in cases involving the disposal of a fixed amount of solids per unit time with a minimum expenditure of energy and at a low cost for replacement of worn pipes. Such situations are not uncommon in the disposal of mill tailings and the disposal of solids deposited from irrigation waters. It was found that data leading to general conclusions for various pipe sizes were not available but certain definite trends are indicated and methods of analyzing available data are presented in the hope that they may be of assistance in preparing engineering estimates on designs of pipe lines of the type described above. Energy Requirements Carrying out the idea contained in Professor O'Brien's paper concerning the method of computing energy required to transport solids, the following analysis leads to some rather interesting conclusions. Let us represent: Solids load in terms of mass per unit time by w Ratio of mass of suspended solids to total mass of mixture flowing by p Volume rate of flow of mixture by Q Length of pipe by L Slope of energy grade line by s Mass per unit volume of solids by m8. Mass per unit volume of liquid by mi Mass per unit volume of mixture by 11 We then have as an expression for the solids load: w = pqmm The work done per unit mass, p, on the mixture to move it along the pipe the

Jan 1, 1947

By J. M. Seeman, R. A. Dodd

If some solution-quenched supersaturated aluminum solid solutions, e.g.., Al(Cu), are plastically deformed at room temperature and then aged at 200oC, the hardness may first decrease before increasing in the usual manner ' A similar transient softening is observed, even in the absence of plastic deformation, when a thin foil or small-diameter wire Al(Cu) specimen is rapidly quenched from the solution-treatment temperature and then aged.' Also, some solution-quenched and neutron-irradiated alloys undergo an initial hardness decrease during subsequent aging.3 The usual explanation of the transient softening in the above examples involves the effect of vacancies introduced by plastic deformation, rapid quenching, and neutron irradiation, respectively However, the mechanism of softening is not unequivo-cably established. In the first-noted case, Gane and parkins' observed that the softening was approximately proportional to the difference in the atomic diameters of solute and solvent, and it was argued that, if a large relative difference in atomic diameter promoted vacancy-assisted room-temperature solute diffusion to dislocations, dislocation climb occurring during subsequent aging at 200°C could cause transient softening. Some substantiation of this theory was offered by the additional observation that discontinuous yielding of solution-quenched polycrystalline Al(Cu) tensile specimens was suppressed by interrupting the test for a short aging treatment at 200°C. Of course, reversion (resolution of GPI) at 200°C would also cause softening, and Sil-cock4 expressed the opinion that the softening in the case of Al(Cu) must be partly associated with reversion. Also, Hirsch5 commented on the possibility that, if jogs cause hardening, an anneal at 200°C should straighten the jogged dislocations and result in softening. However, parkins' has re-expressed his belief that these mechanisms are not entirely consistent with the observed serrated stress-strain curves. Experimental. New data has now been obtained for Al(Cu), Al(Ge), Al(Mg), and Al(Zn) primary solid-solution alloys. These alloys were prepared from metals exceeding 99.99 pct purity, and specimens 4 by 4 in. diam were solution-treated, quenched, deformed 10 pct in compression at room temperature, and aged at 200'C in a cottonseed oil bath for various times. Generally, these operations could not be carried out in rapid succession, so the alloys were stored in a freezer between treatments to minimize aging. The variation in hardness with aging time, Figs. 1 to 4, was determined by microhardness testing with a 3.0-kg load. At least five readings were averaged to obtain each data point, and all measurements were taken about the center circumference of each cylinder (region of maximum deformation). Each specimen was used to obtain only one data point, i.e., specimens were not replaced in the aging bath after measurements were made. In

Jan 1, 1968

By Paul A. Bailly

Geology is not the problem. Because of inflation, taxation, and politics more reserves are being reconverted to uneconomic resources than there are new reserves created by exploration and extraction technology.

Jan 1, 1976

By Carl E. Swartz

ALTHOUGH a number of articles appeared during the war advocating the use of cadmium in lead-tin solders, very little information of value can be found in the literature regarding the properties of solders containing cadmium. In most of the published articles the cadmium seems to have been considered merely as a partial substitute for tin in a tin-lead alloy rather than as an essential constituent of a ternary alloy. The primary object of the substitution of cadmium for tin was to lessen the amount of tin required, at a time when the latter was scarce and high-priced, and thus to produce a cheaper solder. While this object was accomplished, the new properties resulting from a change from a binary lead-tin alloy to a ternary lead-tin-cadmium alloy were not given proper consideration in many cases. For the past few years, the American Smelting & Refining Co. has been marketing a very considerable amount of cadmium in the form of lead-tin-cadmium alloys for use as solders for certain special purposes, and the successful use of these solders suggested that if more extensive knowledge were available concerning the properties of lead-tin-cadmium alloys of various compositions their field of usefulness might be materially extended. The investigation described in the present paper was undertaken to obtain this information and, by means of tests under conditions approaching those of practical use, to determine the suitability of cadmium solders for various purposes. CHARACTERISTICS AND REQUIREMENTS OF SOLDERS IN GENERAL General Physical Properties.-When cast into bars, solder should present a smooth and bright appearance free from oxide inclusions and bubbles. Ductility should be as great as possible without sacrificing tensile strength, and vice versa. Hardness and specific gravity are not of any great importance. Melting Characteristics.-The melting or solidification range is important. This statement applies both to the extent of the range and to the actual temperature at which complete solidification occurs. A rather narrow solidification range is desirable in soft solders in order that solidification may take place quickly. The solder should have high fluidity at temperatures only slightly above its melting range. For a

Jan 1, 1928

By Irving Fatt, Robert J. S. Brown

INTRODUCTION The wettability of reservoir rocks is recognized as one of the major factors that determines their multiphase flow properties. Multiphase flow properties in turn govern reservoir performance. For this reason, the reservoir engineer is vitally interested in the wettability of reservoir rock. The production research scientist is interested in wettability because the solution of the problem of improving waterflood recovery by use of surface-active additives may hinge on a detailed understanding of the wettability of reservoir rock. Early workers believed that all reservoir rocks were preferentially water wet. Continued study soon uncovered certain rocks which had flow properties that indicated that they were preferentially oil wet. Recent studies show that there is a spectrum of wettability. Some reservoir rocks have multiphase flow properties which indicate that they have an intermediate wettability. The differences in recovery observed among different reservoirs may, in part be the result of small differences in wettability. Differences in wettability amcng reservoir rocks may be the result of differences in the fraction of the total surface area that is preferentially oil wet and preferentially water wet. Nuclear magnetic relaxation measurements may provide a method for determining the fraction of preferentially oil wet and preferentially water wet area in porous media. Measurements to be reported here were made on water-saturated unconsolidated sand packs which were mixtures of preferentially oil wet and preferentially water wet sands. The resulting data show definitely that the fraction of each wettability in these sand packs can be determined by this nondestructive method of measurement. THEORY OF NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RELAXATION The details of the theory of nuclear magnetic relaxation have been presented previously1. In this paper, only a very brief review of the theory will be given to show its application to the measurement of fractional wettability. Nuclear magnetic relaxation is a process of adjustment undergone by certain atomic nuclei when their magnetic environment is changed. They adjust, or relax, to be in equilibrium with a new magnetic field. The reason that some atomic nuclei are affected by a magnetic field is that they themselves behave in some respects like tiny magnets. In particular the proton, the nucleus of the hydrogen atom, behaves as a magnet. The proton spins, somewhat as the earth spins on its axis. The spinning charge produces a magnetic field just as current traveling in a loop of wire produces a magnetic field. No net charge is required, however; for instance, the neutron has spin and magnetic moment. When the spinning proton is subjected to an externally applied magnetic field, its axis tends to line up with the magnetic field, somewhat as a compass needle tends to line up, but the spinning proton cannot do this as easily as the needle can. The proton also has mass, and its spinning mass makes the proton behave somewhat like a gyroscope. As is well known, a force which tends to change the axial direction of a gyroscope merely causes the gyroscope to precess: lhat is, the axis begins to trace out a conical surface. The gyroscope cannot actually assume the position suggested

Jan 1, 1957

By Michael Hoch, Seong Kwan Rhee

The ternary system Zr-Cr-0 was investigated at 1200°, 1500°, and 1700°C. The isotherms at these temperatures were determined by metallographic and X-ray diffraction analysis of carefully selected alloys. AS a part of a series of investigations1-4 of the ternary and quaternary phase diagrams on refractory metals and their compounds, the ternary system Zr-Cr-O was investigated at 1200°, 1500°, and 1'700°C. The binary diagrams Zr-Cr, Zr-O, and Cr-0 as reported by Hansen5 and Levin et a1.' and the existence of a ternary coompound ZrsCrsO (q-carbide structure a. = 11.96A) provided a good base for this investigation of the Zr-Cr-O phase diagram. MATERIALS The materials used and their suppliers were: Zirconium powder, 99.4 pct pure, Charles Hardy, New York; Zirconium dioxide, Fairmount Chemical Co., Newark, N.J.; Chromium powder, 99.85 pct pure, Fairmount Chemical Co., Newark, N.J.; Chromium sesquioxide, 99.86 pct pure, J. T. Baker Chemical Co., Pillipsburg, N.J. Though the materials used were not "hyperpure", the impurities present do not affect the results (lattice parameters, phase boundaries) within the experimental accuracy. EQUIPMENT AND PROCEDURE The detailed procedures and equipment used for this investigation were similar to those described elsewherel' "ith the exception that in this study an induction-heated argon-atmosphere furnace was used. The latter furnace was used to prevent the vaporization of chromium metal in samples in the higher temperature range (above 1200°C). The tungsten crucible was induct ion-heated in a vertical quartz tube filled with argon gas. The quartz tube was 1-1/2 in. in diameter and 10 in. long; it was connected at the top and bottom to water-cooled copper plates. The argon gas of a purity 99.995 pct was further purified by being passed through zirconium metal chips which were maintained at 800°C in a silica tube 1 in. in diameter and 30 in. in length. The furnace was flushed with argon gas for an hour before starting heating; during heating, a slight (3 cm oil) overpressure of argon was maintained in the system. Power was supplied by a 20-kw Ther-Monic Induction Generator. The samples rested on a tungsten-wire basket; the wire basket was connected to a tungsten wire which passed through the tungsten crucible lid, and entered the system on top through a Wilson-type seal. By pulling on the wire, the sample was removed from the crucible and dropped to the water-cooled copper base of the furnace. Because of the presence of argon gas, the cooling of the sample was even more rapid than in the vacuum furnace.' EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 1) Isothermal Section at 1200°C. The compositions investigated have been numbered within the phase diagram, Fig. 1, and all the pertinent information about the samples can be found in Table I. This table lists the composition of the samples, the phases present in the room-temperature diffraction patterns, the phases detectable in the microstruc-ture, and calculated lattice parameters of the a-zirconium phase. The shapes of the various phase

Jan 1, 1964

By John R. Don

This paper, under the title of "The Genesis of Auriferous Lodes from a Chemical Point of View, Illustrated by Analyses of Samples Taken from the Chief Auriferous Area of New Zealand, Victoria and Queensland, by John R. Don, D.Sc., M.A., Lecturer on Geology in the University of Otago, N. Z.," was submitted by the author with the frank confession that its length, covering several hundred printed pages of the Transactions of the Institute, would preclude its acceptance for publication in full. But the great value of the original work which it records rendered its rejection on that ground highly undesirable ; and, after correspondence with Dr. Don, it was agreed that the Secretary should condense the paper, subject to the author's approval, omitting what was not essentially connected with the original work reported. In the discharge of this laborious and difficult duty, the Secretary's chief trouble has been his regret to cut out the acute criticisms and admirable theoretical and historical summaries of Dr. Don on the general subject of the science of ore-deposits. It should be added, that the original paper has been returned to the author, with full permission to publish it through any other medium (due mention being made of the first publication by the Institute of portions thereof), and a cordial expression of the hope that the treatise, as a whole, may be thus published, to the advantage of science. The Secretary begs to add, that many of the portions necessarily omitted from this condensed version would constitute, in his judgment, interesting and valuable separate contributions. In attempting to condense this paper, it was necessary at the outset to cut out the tint three chapters, of which the following brief outline is therefore given. Chapter I., introductory in character, indicates the importance of chemical analysis in the investigation of the genesis of ore-deposits, emphasizing the value of Prof. Posepny's Institute paper, and especially of the discussion which it aroused, and stating in general terms the theories of "lateral secretion" and "ascension." Chapter 11. describes the scope of the investigation undertaken by the author, the chief purpose of which was to determine which of the above-named theories was favored by the evidence obtained. This evidence consists chiefly (though not wholly) of analyses of the country-rock taken at various distances from the auriferous "reefs," (a) on deep mine-levels; (b) in the surface or "vadose" region : and also (c) of underlying, neighboring or connected crystallines (granite, gneiss, etc.). In addition to these investigations, there is a separate inquiry into the question of the deposition of gold in marine basins, suggested by the fact that most of the gold in the lodes of Australasia occurs in stratified deposits. Chapter 111. discusses the principles and methods followed by the author in the examination of country-rock for the purpose described. After giving his reasons for believing that careful tests of carefully-chosen samples of country-rock taken at varying distances from the ore-deposit might throw light upon the question

Jan 1, 1898

By R. I. Jaffee, F. C. Holden, H. R. Ogden

ECENT papers dealing with the properties of unalloyed iodide titanium have been directed primarily at the determination of base-line properties for alloy investigations. Early work was limited to a few tests because of the limited availability of iodide titanium at the time. In the results of papers by Campbell et al.,1 Gonser and Litton,2 Jaffee and Campbell,3 inlay and Snyder,4 and Jaffee, Ogden, and Maykuth, data on mechanical properties are presented for unalloyed iodide titanium in the annealed and cold-worked conditions. Data are presented in this paper which show the effects of heat treatment on the structure and mechanical properties of commercially produced iodide titanium. Correlation is made between microstruc-tural variables and the mechanical properties. Experimental Procedures Melting Stock: The melting stock used was as-deposited iodide titanium, produced by New Jersey Zinc Co. The furnished analysis showed the following range of impurities: N, 0.004 to 0.008 pct; Mn, 0.005 to 0.013; Fe, 0.0035 to 0.025; Al, 0.013 to 0.015; Mo, 0.0015; Pb, 0.0045 to 0.0065; Cu, 0.0015 to 0.002; Sn, 0.001 to 0.01; Mg, 0.0015 to 0.002; and Ni, 0.003. Hydrogen content as determined by vacuum-fusion analysis was 0.0091 wt pct (0.44 atomic pct) after arc melting and fabrication. Nitrogen analysis on the arc-melted and fabricated titanium showed a content of less than 0.002 pct N. The average hardness of the furnished stock was Rf 70, or approximately 85 VHN. Melting Procedure: The as-deposited rods were rolled, sheared, and degreased in preparation for arc melting. The charge was arc-melted with a tungsten electrode in a water-cooled copper crucible under a positive pressure of high purity (99.96 pct) argon. The final ingot was approximately 2 in. in diameter and showed no increase in hardness over that of the initial stock. Fabrication: Heating for fabrication was done in air. It was begun by forging the ingot into a 3/4 in. diam rod, at an initial temperature of 1600°F. Scale was removed by sandblasting. The rod was then swaged to 1/4 in. diam at room temperature through a series of 20 dies, with approximately 10 pct reduction in area between each die. An anneal of 1 hr at 850 °C in air was given after the 1/2 in. die, such that the final cold reduction was 75 pct. Sections cut from this rod were used for test and microstructure specimens. Heat Treatment: Heat treatments were carried out in resistance tube furnaces with stainless-steel linings, under an atmosphere of gettered argon. As further protection against contamination, the specimens were packed in titanium turnings in a titanium sleeve. Control experiments have shown negligible hardness increases with this method, indicating that contamination from oxygen and nitrogen is slight. Three cooling rates were employed in this work; these have been designated as water quenching, argon cooling (to simulate air cooling under a controlled atmosphere), and furnace cooling. The cooling rate for an argon cool is 100°C per min for the first minute, with an average cooling rate of 35°C per min over a 15-min period. A furnace cool requires about 10 hr, with an average cooling rate of 3.6oC per min during the first hour, and an average cooling rate of 1.2°C per min over the 10-hr period. Microimpact Test: The specimen adopted was based on the cylindrical Izod Type Y specimen (ASTM, E23-41T). All dimensions were reduced to half scale, including the notch radius. Specifications are shown in Fig. 1. The specimen is held vertically in an adapter and broken as a cantilever beam. Impact tests were run on a constant-velocity (11.34 ft per sec) Tinius Olsen impact testing machine with a total available energy of 100 in.-lb. Tests were made to determine the correlation between this microimpact and the standard V-notch Charpy impact test. Curves showing impact energy as a function of temperature for both impact tests are plotted in Fig. 2. Transition temperatures, when they occur, are about the same for both impact tests. All three titanium-rich materials have the same conversion factor, 10. Tensile Testing: Tensile tests were conducted on Baldwin-Southwark testing machines using the 600, 2400, or 3000 1b range. Specifications for the test specimen were taken from the 1948 edition of the ASM Metals Handbook, and are shown in Fig. 1. Strain measurements were made using an SR-4 resistance gage (Type A-7) cemented to the reduced section in conjunction with a lever-type extenso-meter. Readings on the SR-4 strain indicator were

Jan 1, 1954