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By C. S. Smith, E. W. Palmer

IN 1934, when Gregg and Daniloffl wrote their excellent monograph on the alloys of iron and copper, the most recent literature on the constitution of the alloys indicated a narrow single-liquid area for 20" above the liquidus with a closed liquid mis-cibility gap above this. Since that time, however, a number of investigators have confirmed the much earlier studies of Mushet2 and Stead3 who, among others in the nineteenth century, had described the true state of affairs. Liquid copper and iron are completely miscible in the absence of carbon, but small amounts of carbon cause liquid segregation. In 1934, one of the writers' mentioned evidence for the absence of liquid separation in carbon-free alloys at temperatures up to 1700°C. Two years later, Mad-docks and Claussen5 unequivocally established the absence of liquid segregation and published a revised diagram, reproduced in fig. 1. They also studied the limits of the two-liquid area in ternary alloys of iron, copper, and carbon as a function of carbon and iron content. In the same year Simpson and Bannister" and Schumacher and Souden7 described in some detail the properties of alloys containing 50 to 75 pct Cu. More recently Hodges et al.16 have developed the copper-rich alloys for use as high-strength conductors. In 1937, Iwase, Okamoto, and Ameniya8 published data on the miscibility gap in ternary alloys of iron, copper, and carbon that supported the conclusions of Maddocks and Claussen, and definitely located the two-liquid area at temperatures of 1450" and 1540°C. They also reported that additions of 1 pct Al, Ni, Pb, Sn, or Zn caused no segregation in 50 pct Cu alloys at 1540°C. The use of copper in amounts approximating 1 pct has found industrial employment to an increasing degree in both wrought and cast steels, for such steels are capable of being precipitation-hardened following normalizing, and have high yield strengths. This is summarized by Gregg and Daniloff,1 Sallitt,9 and Lorig and Adams,10 while Alexander" gives additional information on the heat treatment of copper-steel castings. Lippert12 has described Digby's two-phase steels containing copper and chromium. The work described in the present paper was done in the years 1932 to 1934, at which time much of the information was new. The excellent work subsequently done in other laboratories but more promptly published makes the present paper in part only a confirmation of what is now well known. There has not, however, been published any unified study of

Jan 1, 1951

By Frederick W. DeVries

Since we first agreed to present this talk we have learned that some of you may have been covering ground we intend to discuss: Bob Schechter, Daryl Tweeton, Don Seidel, Herb Burgman; however, the ideas were original when we began, "novel" as in the title of the talk, and whether our results are news or merely corroborative, we feel they point a direction that could be valuable to all. We worked with many of you in the past on using hydrogen peroxide in in-situ uranium leaching. Our talk today is not directly related to peroxide; it is, I hope, illustrative of Du Pont&apos;s interest in providing service to this industry in any way we can. The scouting work we are presenting was stimulated by field inputs: First, ammonium carbonate leaches cause restoration problems, primarily because ammonium ions exchange on clays with calcium. Second, sodium carbonate solutions, especially in South Texas deposits, can cause intolerable swelling of clays. From discussions with Dr. van Olphen, who wrote the book on clay chemistry, we inferred by comparison of the radii of the hydrated ions of the elements in these clay systems, that since potassium had about the same radius as ammonium, and sodium was much larger, potassium occupied a unique position to solve both problems. We have shown: FIGURE 1 Potassium bicarbonate systems leach uranium without loss of permeability found with sodium Potassium salts are very effective in restoring ammonia-leached sites Before reviewing the details of our work, which was performed by Hazen Research, Inc., I should like to stress its scouting nature. We are trying to assist the in-situ industry by pointing out new, potentially important directions. But, as with our previous work on sodium silicate to restore permeability, we feel the development phases can generally best be carried out in cooperative programs with companies directly involved with operations. DISCUSSION Test Parameters Now for the details: Our leaching tests were designed to note pressure-drop changes across the ore sample as the uranium was leached. Figure 2 shows the apparatus. The [ ] packed length was 20.5 inches (52 cm) with fifteen hundred grams of ore in the two-inch (5 cm)-diameter bed. Pressure drop was measured by manometer and feed rates were maintained constant with a tubing pump. The samples, from a South Texas leach site, were sealed in "Zip Loc" bags, frozen with "dry ice", crushed (still frozen) through six mesh, and blended before placement into the columns. The ores analyzed as shown here: FIGURE 3 Ore Analyses [Sample A Sample B U308 015% 0122% Mo 0004% 0086% Se0012% <0001% Fe3,078%076% Fee- 098% 044%]

Jan 1, 1979

By H. Q. Golder

With the development of open-pit mines of ever increasing depth, the stability of the pit slopes in soil and rock is of growing economic importance. How is it, considering the newness of the problem that we know anything at all about the stability of man-made slopes? How much do we know and how did it all begin? We can make a reasonable estimate of the stability of a slope in soil, but we know as yet woefully little about slopes in rock because the problem is much more complex. It is only with the development of the capacity of the computer to handle wearisome calculations that any but the simplest of stability problems in rock have become possible of solution. But what we do know is a guide of immense value in the design of slopes in rock. But remember that the computer is a great elevator; it takes everyone&apos;s feet off the ground! So our study began with soils and what is now known as "Soil Mechanics", which is a translation of the German term "Bodenmechanik". It is a pity that the title of Terzaghi&apos;s book "Erdbaumechanik" was not used instead. But here the task of the translator is difficult because English lacks the facility of German to string together several words and make a new one whose meaning is unequivocal. Thus, we have the three German words &apos;Erde&apos; &apos;Bau&apos; and &apos;Mechanik&apos;. &apos;Erde&apos; means "earth" in almost all the English senses including "soil". &apos;Bau&apos; and &apos;bauen&apos; convey the meaning of building and construction, and &apos;Mechanik&apos; means "mechanics" which includes statics and dynamics and the &apos;mechanics of materials&apos;, etc. So that a correct translation of the German is a phrase like "the mechanics of construction with, in or on, earth or soil." However we are stuck with &apos;Soil Mechanics&apos; and that is where it all began. Now this study or subject did not begin with &apos;Terzaghi&apos; although his contribution to the subject is unquestionably greater than that of any other single person. Every scientific discipline has its &apos;classical problem&apos; and that of soil mechanics is &apos;the earth pressure problem&apos; and it began in the 17th century. In fact, it probably began before this with the introduction of gunpowder to Western Europe in about the 15th century, but the first known reference to the problem was by Vauban, a distinguished French military engineer who lived from 1633 to 1707 and who gave rules for the dimensions of retaining walls from 6 to 80 ft. in height. The soil properties were not mentioned by Vauban probably because the rules were intended to be applied to fortifications only, but Poncelet (1840) claimed that Vauban&apos;s rules were based on a theory, and not simply on military and practical

Jan 1, 1972

"The richest hill on earth" had its start as a placer gold camp in 1864. The gold was quickly worked out but then silver was discovered in the copper ores in Butte Hill. After ten years as a silver camp, rich copper ore was found in 1881 and the future of Butte was assured. In the early 1960&apos;s, the Anaconda Company began the shift from underground mining at Butte to open pit mining of the enormous, low-grade copper deposit surrounding the old high-grade veins which had been worked for over eighty years. Their first primary crusher was a 66 in. by 84 in. (168 m by 2. 13 m) jaw crusher. The pit was expanded at such a rate, however, that its location became endangered. Additionally, the new Clyde Weed concentrator had been built at Butte; and in 1969 construction of a new gyratory installation was started. The primary crusher at the Clyde Weed concentrator is one of the most unusual primary crushers ever put into operation. At times, the ore from the Berkeley pit contains large amounts of timber, pipe, rails, and so forth left in the ore body from the old underground mining operations; and the crusher installation had to be designed so this tramp material could be readily removed ahead of the crusher. Ore is delivered by 100- and 150-ton trucks to two side-by-side dump pockets, each with a capacity of 400 tons. Originally, a hydraulic grapple was installed on the dividing wall between the dump pockets; but it was found that oversize boulders large enough to block the discharge opening at the bottom of each hopper were rapidly covered with other material, and the grapple was unable to reach and remove the large boulders causing the blockage. In addition, the grapple was located in a quite vulnerable position; and it sustained damage from being struck by rock dumped from the trucks. Oversize boulders are now blasted. Underneath each pocket is a vibrating grizzly feeder with the grizzly bars set at 4 in. (102 mm). These feeder-grizzlies are 84 in. (2. 13 m) wide and 32 .ft (9. 75 m) long, with grizzly sections 16 ft (4. 88 m) long. Approximately 75% of the ore passes through the grizzlies and grizzly oversize then drops onto two parallel 6 ft (1. 83 m) wide picking belts. The belts are 3 in. (76 mm) thick and rest on idlers supported by air- filled rubber shock absorbers. At the side of each picking belt is a hydraulic grapple which is used to remove timbers too large to be removed by hand. At times, four men are used to remove timber and tramp iron. Timbers are dropped onto a transverse belt conveyor which discharges into a truck stationed outside the primary crusher building,

Jan 1, 1978

By A. T. Beckwith

The Lehigh Navigation Coal Company Inc. operates steep-pitch, relatively deep mines in the Panther Creek Valley, at the eastern end of the southern anthracite coal field. Commercially minable coal beds are the Mammoth,† Primrose, Orchard, and Buck Mountain;‡ their respective thicknesses average 50, 15, 10 and 12 ft. Sand slates immediately overlie and underlie these beds, though in some locations sandstone or conglomerate beds occur. Underground operations extend to a depth of 1200 ft. below the surface, and comprise a bulk of virgin work on the lower levels, and a small amount of remining on the upper levels. With increase in depth, ventilation has become a more important factor. Development In early days slopes or drifts were driven in the outcropping coal on the hillsides. Subsequent development was by water-level tunnels, with portals above high water in Panther Creek. These tunnels have been maintained because they intercept and drain much water that enters the mined-out portion of the bed and otherwise would follow down to the deep workings+ Below these tunnels, the coal was customarily developed by slopes. Muleways, which are zigzag chutes easy to travel, were also driven to connect lower openings with the water levels. When it became necessary to go still deeper, the slopes were abandoned, and vertical multicompartment shafts were sunk from the surface. Levels have been at vertical intervals of from 175 to 250 ft. Recent practice has been toward the latter spacing, splitting the total lift, however, by starting to mine from chutes extending halfway up to the level above. Chutes customarily are spaced at 50, 60 or 70-ft. centers along the gangways. At some mines, additional shafts have been sunk from the surface to the level containing the main pumping station, and these carry the discharge lines from the pumps. As the mines are ventilated by the exhausting system, both the hoisting and so-called water shafts serve as intakes. The main fan is always on the surface, and is connected with the return airways from the various levels by an air hole or a vertical shaft. For economy, when the present deepest levels were developed, and return-air shafts or air holes were not extended to the new level, but connections were made from the new level to that above by two or more holes. It is doubtful that this method will be continued, as complications in the system, increased resistance to flow, and other difficulties undoubtedly will counterbalance any economies this provision may afford. During the early years of mining, when operations were at no great depth, all development headings were driven in the coal bed. As mining progressed downward, increased ground pressures slowed develop

Jan 1, 1942

By M. E. Wadsworth, W. H. Dresher, W. M. Fassell

HIGH temperature-high pressure techniques have long been used to great advantage in the organic chemical industry, the petroleum industry, and the paper industry. Only recently, however, have these methods been used to extract metals from their ores on a commercial scale. The Chemical Construction Corp., together with interested producers of nickel and cobalt, has done much to develop methods of producing nickel and cobalt powders by the use of high temperature-high pressure techniques.&apos; The Howe Sound Co. is currently operating a plant near Salt Lake City in which the new Chemical Construction Corp. technique is applied to cobalt-arsenic sulfide concentrates. In this method the concentrates are leached in a dilute solution of sulfuric acid under air pressure at a high temperature. Near Edmonton, in Alberta, Canada, the Sherritt Gordon Co. is also using the new method in conjunction with its ammoniacal leach process.&apos; National Lead Co., at Fredricktown, Mo., is operating a process similar to that of Howe Sound. In spite of the rapid growth of high temperature-high pressure hydrometallurgical processes, there has been very little work done on fundamental principles involved in this type of process. Conse- quently the literature lacks any significant data in this field. Oxidation of pyrite,3 sphalerite,4 galena," and recently molybdenite" in alkaline solutions has been reported to some extent. This investigation was initiated, therefore, to broaden the application of high temperature-high pressure hydrometallurgy and also to contribute some insight into the basic mechanisms of oxidation in an aqueous medium under these conditions. In addition to the immediate consequences of these processes much valuable information remains to be learned about fundamental reactions when they are carried out at temperatures and pressures slightly higher than those normally encountered. Leaching of molybdenite by alkaline solutions under oxygen pressure has recently been reported in the Russian literature by E. S. Usataya,6 ho found that leaching rate increased with an increase in the pH of the solution—the strongest effects being observed at a pH of 10—and also with an increase in temperature. Usataya also has reported the formation of a protective film on the surface of the molybdenite when the leaching solution was weakly alkaline, neutral, or acidic. He believes that this oxidation process explains the migration of Mo++ in the oxidation zones of molybdenite ore deposits and the subsequent impoverishment of the ores. Equipment: The high temperature-high pressure reaction unit used in this work was especially designed for kinetic studies of this nature, emphasis being placed on accuracy of measurement and precision of control. As details of the unit&apos;s construction and operation have been discussed elsewhere,&apos; only basic features and principles of operation will be discussed at this point.

Jan 1, 1957

By A. T. Beckwith

The Lehigh Navigation Coal Company Inc. operates steep-pitch, relatively deep mines in the Panther Creek Valley, at the eastern end of the southern anthracite coal field. Commercially minable coal beds are the Mammoth,† Primrose, Orchard, and Buck Mountain;‡ their respective thicknesses average 50, 15, 10 and 12 ft. Sand slates immediately overlie and underlie these beds, though in some locations sandstone or conglomerate beds occur. Underground operations extend to a depth of 1200 ft. below the surface, and comprise a bulk of virgin work on the lower levels, and a small amount of remining on the upper levels. With increase in depth, ventilation has become a more important factor. Development In early days slopes or drifts were driven in the outcropping coal on the hillsides. Subsequent development was by water-level tunnels, with portals above high water in Panther Creek. These tunnels have been maintained because they intercept and drain much water that enters the mined-out portion of the bed and otherwise would follow down to the deep workings+ Below these tunnels, the coal was customarily developed by slopes. Muleways, which are zigzag chutes easy to travel, were also driven to connect lower openings with the water levels. When it became necessary to go still deeper, the slopes were abandoned, and vertical multicompartment shafts were sunk from the surface. Levels have been at vertical intervals of from 175 to 250 ft. Recent practice has been toward the latter spacing, splitting the total lift, however, by starting to mine from chutes extending halfway up to the level above. Chutes customarily are spaced at 50, 60 or 70-ft. centers along the gangways. At some mines, additional shafts have been sunk from the surface to the level containing the main pumping station, and these carry the discharge lines from the pumps. As the mines are ventilated by the exhausting system, both the hoisting and so-called water shafts serve as intakes. The main fan is always on the surface, and is connected with the return airways from the various levels by an air hole or a vertical shaft. For economy, when the present deepest levels were developed, and return-air shafts or air holes were not extended to the new level, but connections were made from the new level to that above by two or more holes. It is doubtful that this method will be continued, as complications in the system, increased resistance to flow, and other difficulties undoubtedly will counterbalance any economies this provision may afford. During the early years of mining, when operations were at no great depth, all development headings were driven in the coal bed. As mining progressed downward, increased ground pressures slowed develop

Jan 1, 1942

By C. V. Millikan

New developments in air-gas lift practices in the Mid-Continent area since our Pall meeting in Fort Worth have done much to increase the efficiency of installations, and thus bring within economic limit of air-gas lift many wells which could not have been flowed profitably before. After the gas-lift had so thoroughly demonstrated its value in the Seminole field, its use spread to other areas and many installations were made of which the economy could be questioned. In the Seminole area, when production began to decline it was necessary either to increase the efficiency of the air or gas-lift or to put the wells on the pump, and pumping was not a process of lifting oil to which any operator looked forward with confidence. These conditions have resulted in the development of many practices which increase the efficiency and permit wells to be flowed with air or gas which earlier could not have been flowed economically, and wells which have been flowing to continue to a lower rate of production. The practices which have come into more common usage in the Mid-Continent area recently are mostly revivals of and improvements on practices which have been known in air-lift work for several years. Many arc peculiar to the individual well on which they are used. Intermittent Flowing Some interesting results are being obtained in Seminole and other districts by intermittent injection of gas. Gas is introduced during per-iods iods of 3 to 5 min. at a rate considerably over that necessary to acquire the production at a steady rate of injection, and is then cut off for a period of 3 to 15 min. Two to five wells are run from the same group of conlpressors. The total volume of gas required is sometimes reduced as much as one-third of that required when it is introduced at a constant rate, without changing the amount of oil production. The maximum pressure required is usually higher, but the average equal to or lower than that required for constant rate of flow. The effect on the wells is usually an irregular rate of flowing which may cause inconvenience where recycling is practiced. It would seem that this increase in efficiency is due to less slippage when the gas is introduced intermittently than when it is intro-

Jan 1, 1928

MINING AND METALLURGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA San Francisco Section The San Francisco Section of the Mining and Metallurgical Society of America held a joint meeting with the local section of the American Institute of Mining Engineers at the Engineers&apos; Club, San Francisco, on Tuesday, Apr. 16, 1918. The meeting was preceded by a dinner. Letters from the parent body in NewYork asking for the consideration of the proposed bill before Congress, and an expression of opinion relative to the appointment of a Federal Administrator of Mines justified the joint meeting of the local sections of the two mining societies, in that a more representative opinion of the engineers of California could he obtained. The meeting was called to order at 7:15 P.M. by Mr. Frank H. Probert acting as Chairman. About thirty engineers were present. Mr. Probert read a letter of March 14, from Secretary Huntoon, asking that the meeting be called. He read excerpts from Bulletin 117 of February 28, 1918, of the Mining and Metallurgical Society containing a copy of the proposed bill, so that all present might be advised of its essential contents. He briefly commented on the urgent need of such legislation and invited discussion of the subject. After long and thorough discussion on the part of the members present, Professor Lawson made the following motion: I move that a resolution expressing the sense of the joint meeting of the local sections of the American Institute of Mining Engineers and Mining and Metallurgical Society of America be forwarded to the secretaries of the two societies to the effect that we heartily approve of the purpose and intention of the bill designed to promote and stimulate the production of minerals necessary for the successful prosecution of the war; and that we suggest prices should be fixed for the period of the war and two years thereafter, and that these prices, guaranteed by the Government, should apply at the nearest shipping point to place of production of the minerals. This motion was carried. The meeting then adjourned, and a telegram was sent by Mr. Probert, the Chairman, to Mr. Huntoon, notifying him of the motion that had been carried at the meeting.

Jan 7, 1918

By Herbert Clark Hoover, Lou Henry Hoover

GEORGIUS AGRICOLA was born at Glauchau, in Saxony, on March 24th, 1494, and therefore entered the world when it was still upon the threshold of the Renaissance ; Gutenberg&apos;s first book had been printed but forty years before ; the Humanists had but begun that stimulating criticism which awoke the Reformation; Erasmus, of Rotterdam, who was subsequently to become Agricola&apos;s friend and patron, was just completing his student days. The Reformation itself was yet to come, but it was not long delayed, for Luther was born the year before Agricola, and through him Agricola&apos;s homeland became the cradle of the great movement ; nor did Agricola escape being drawn into the conflict. Italy, already awake with the new classical revival, was still a . busy workshop of antiquarian research, translation, study, and publication, and through her the Greek and Latin Classics were only now available for wide distribution. Students from the rest of Europe, among them at a later, time Agricola himself, flocked to the Italian Universities, and on their return infected their native cities with the newly-awakened learning. At Agricola&apos;s birth Columbus had just returned from his great discovery, and it was only three years later that Vasco Da Gama rounded Cape Good. Hope. Thus these two foremost explorers had only initiated that greatest period of geographical expansion in the world&apos;s history. A&apos; few dates will recall. how far this exploration extended; during Agricola&apos;s lifetime. Balboa first saw the Pacific in 1513 ; Cortes entered the City of Mexico in 1520; Magellan entered the Pacific in the same year ; Pizarro penetrated into Peru in 1528 ; De Soto landed in Florida in 1539, and Potosi was discovered in 1546. Omitting the sporadic settlement on the St. Lawrence by Cartier in 1541, the settlement of North America did not begin for a quarter of a century after Agricola&apos;s death. Thus the revival of learning, with its train of Humanism, the Reformation, its stimulation of exploration and the re-awakening of the arts and sciences, was still in its infancy with Agricola. We know practically nothing of Agricola&apos;s antecedents or his youth. His real name was Georg Bauer (" peasant "), and it was probably Latinized by his teachers, as was the custom of the time. His own brother, in receipts

Jan 1, 1950

By James Douglas

An address before the Meeting of the New York Section, Nov. 4, 1914. As life advances one is inclined to look backward instead of forward, and the vista over which my memory carries me has been filled with such a shifting panorama of changes in metallurgy that the whole practice of the art seems to have been re-created. The first cupola furnace that I saw in operation was at one of the group of mines at Capelton, Quebec, from which the Nichols company still draws some of its sulphur supply. At that time it was operated by a Hartford, Conn., company, under a General Adams. When its small brick furnaces made a campaign of a week and smelted 10 tons a day, the feat redounded to the credit of the operator. The introduction of the water-jacketed cupola dates forward to the next decade. I was using one in Pennsylvania, making copper matte, to the horror of a noted metallurgist, who could not conceive it possible that you. could bring fused sulphides in contact with steel without rapid corrosion. In our ignorance we were doing what seemed to be an impossibility, and it is just that recklessness and disregard for precedent which has characterized so much of the work of American metallurgists, and carried us forward at such headlong speed. Once the water jacket was accepted as the type of the. copper cupola, its almost unlimited expansion in length, but not in width, was a matter of convenience rather than of skill. In Butte the cupolas have been enlarged by adding furnace to furnace. The first reverberatories which I saw in operation were those in Professor Hill&apos;s Black Hawk establishment, where the concentrates from the Gilpin County gold mills were run down into matte for separation in England. Sixty dollars per ton was the usual deduction in those days before gold and silver was paid for. Smelting was done with wood as fuel, and the capacity of the furnace was about 10 tons per diem. Shortly after this Professor Hill formed an alliance with Richard Pearce, who was running what, if I recollect aright, was called the Swansea Works, at the bend of the river approaching Georgetown.

Jan 4, 1915

By H. B. Small

The Ottawa river, the northeastern boundary of the Province of Ontario, and the dividing line between the latter and the Province of Quebec, has long been famous for the rafts of timber floated over its waters from the depths of the forest, and other poets besides Moore, have immortalized its beauties in verse. But with the ad vent of the railway which now pierces the forest solitudes, the days of rafting were numbered ; and the boat song is now heard no more on "Ottawa&apos;s tide," or at such long intervals only, that, when heard, it seems an echo of the past. The lumber trade is fast leav ing Ottawa City, the old headquarters of the business; and such square timber as is now cut is gradually finding other outlets than shipment to Great Britain, and other channels of transportation than the Ottawa river. Skirting the northern shore of this great river runs a vast chain of hills, assuming at times the altitude of mountains. Their geological character marks them as remnants of the earliest land of this conti nent. Following the course of the St. Lawrence from the Gulf of that name to the confluence of the river with the Ottawa, the course of which latter they then pursue, the range has been styled " the Lau rentians." Rolling in long undulations, with rounded, rather than rugged or pointed summits, they leave a margin of 8 or 10 miles, dipping in a gentle slope to the water&apos;s edge, rich for agricultural use, and dotted here and there with farms and settlements. Beyond this margin bold hills stretch northerly to blue mountains, rich in iron, lead, plumbago, and other minerals. The Apatite District.—One of these minerals is apatite, or phos phate of lime, the use of which as a material for the manufacture of superphosphate as a fertilizer has become the basis of the industry bidding Fair to prove ere long one of the chief elements of Canadian trade. So rapid has been the growth of this new industry that if the lumber business were to disappear from this mineral district, its void would be filled by that which has sprung up in connection with phosphate.

Jan 1, 1893

By H. F. Easter

The lead department of the El Paso Smelting Works at El Paso, Tex., is operated strictly on a custom basis. The ores treated are drawn from the surrounding territory, comprising New Mexico, Arizona, western Texas, and northern Mexico. Ores received from the last-named section originally amounted to a very large tonnage, but. of recent years have dwindled into comparative insignificance so far as this plant is concerned. This has been due partly to the establishment of a lead-smelting plant at Chihuahua, which is much closer than El Paso to most of the important mines, and partly to the recent revolutionary troubles in Mexico. There are no mines of either lcad or copper in the immediate vicinity of El Paso. In general, it may be said that the lead-ore supply of recent years has been uncertain and precarious, with a general tendency toward an excess of silica and a shortage of iron. This latter requirement has been met in large part by the use in El Paso lead furnaces of considerable amounts of roasted leady copper matte from the Chihuahua smeltery and of converter slag from the El Paso converters. These two materials, coupled with complex lead-copper ores from Bisbee, Ariz., have introduced into the lead-smelting operations a most unusual amount of copper, which has had an important bearing upon the smelting practice of the plant. his matter will be discussed later. The ore, loaded in either box cars or gondolas, enters the storage yard on four tracks elevated about 8 ft. above the ground. As all unloading is done by hand, unloading platforms at the height of the car floor parallel the tracks on each side to afford a runway for wheelbarrows. At frequent intervals these lengthwise platforms are joined together by others running crosswise to facilitate the distribution of the ores evenly over the beds, which are located below and between the tracks. At present much of the bedding space formerly used for lead ores is given over to the copper department, but 20 bins of various sizes are retained for the use of the lead furnaces and the Huntington & Heberlein roasting plant. The largest of these holds about 1,000 tons, while the smallest holds not over

Jan 1, 1916

POLITICAL developments, the impact of Korean warfare necessitating immediate rearmament plans, and recent developments in mining taconites have focused attention on their immediate exploitation to fill the gap created by diminishing reserves. The question of rich foreign ores versus low grade development is past-we need both sources with emphasis on the immediate large scale mining of taconites. In the past three months several things have occurred which add to the taconite picture: (1) Pellets have been used successfully in the blast furnace by Armco. (2) In Congress HR 8512 was introduced by Congressman Blatnik of Minnesota to amend the lending powers of RFC to permit long term loans on basic mining developments, particularly the taconites, which may be needed for the strengthening of the national economy. (3) Walter S. Tower, president of the American Iron & Steel Institute, announced that American steel companies are planning expansion of 6,000,000 tons of steelmaking capacities in the next few years. (4) The outbreak of war in Korea has obliged the United States to rearm and make plans for a semipermanent defense establishment to which 10 to 12 pct of the national income will be budgeted. (5) Startling new advances have been made in the Linde Air Products Co.&apos;s jet-piercing drilling. The United States is now confronted with the problem of increasing its steel capacity and at the same time of securing enough iron ore to supply this increase as well as make provision for the rapidly decreasing supply of rich iron ore on the Mesabi range. Taconites, the low grade iron ore at the east end of the Mesabi, of which there are literally billions and billions of tons of easily concentratable magnetic ore, are the immediate answer. According to the Wall Street Journal on July 24: "Reserve Mining Co., backed by such steelmakers as the Armco Steel Corp., Wheeling Steel Co., Republic Steel Corp., is reported ready-as soon as the pending bill clears (HR 8512)-to seek a $100 million federal loan to build a taconite processing plant at Beaver Bay, Minn., to produce about five million tons (of pellets) annually of 60 pct to 65 pct in iron ore . . ." Experimental work indicates that pellets may be the final form, rather than nodules, agglomerates, or sinter. At Ashland, Ky., the Reserve Mining Co., which has obtained a

Jan 9, 1950

By R. A. Bergier

The Transactions of the Institute contain nothing, as yet, on the subject of pocket-compasses; and in the belief that American miners, explorers, geologists, and engineers will gladly welcome any infor mation about new forms of apparatus, simple in construction and adapted to rapid use, I offer a short description of an improved French combination pocket-compass, which, if once introduced into use, would seem likely to supersede similar instrumens of older pattern. The instrument in my possession I owe to the kindness of M. G. de.La Bouglise, of Paris. The frame of the compass is a double-bottomed box, 2 1/2 inches square and 9/16 of an inch high, made of white metal, and with its sur faces very carefully planed. The sides of the box make true right angles with each other. Two sides are parallel with, and two are normal to, the north and south line of the principal graduation. The bottom is accurately planed, so that the instrument will lie true on a plane surface. A glass, 2 3/8 inches in diameter, is set in the top plate. The graduation for the needle is engraved on the upper face of a ring, connected with the flat disk, in which the center-pin is in serted. Between this disk and the bottom of the box there is a hollow space a quarter of an inch deep. The needle is 1 7/8 inches in length, and can be balanced by means of a small sliding piece of metal. The graduation extends from 0° to 360°, reading from right to left. The stopping of the needle is effected by a screw, A, on the side of the box near the handle, H (Fig. 1). There is also a clinometer attachment, the graduation for which is engraved on the upper face of the silver-plated disk. The compass has two sights. The north sight, B, is a simple pin, a little more than an inch high, which, when not in use, is kept folded down, and is partially protected by the exterior sliding-plate, C. When raised for use, the sight is stopped in a vertical position by a projecting pin attached to the side of the box.. The south sight, D, is connected with the handle, H, and the sight and handle

Jan 1, 1890

By Wayne E. Glenn

A centennial meeting should be a time to take stock, to evaluate performance, to plan ahead. It is like a line in a televised commercial that goes, "You&apos;ve come a long way to get where you&apos;ve got to today." And no less should be said of the mining and energy industries. We have come a long way. A hundred years ago when AIME was founded, this country produced 23 million tons of bituminous coal and 5.2 million bbl of oil. The figures in 1970 were about 580 million tons of coal and 4.1 billion bbl of oil. In spite of such accomplishments, serious and compelling voices are heard in the land - doubting sincerity, questioning corporate structures, and challenging ethics. Those doubts are raised in one part of Washington at the same time that other sections of the Capitol are asking us to produce more energy in order to keep up with population growth, emerging nations, and new technologies. Those of us in the fuel or energy business frequently talk about the race for energy. The question is, can we develop enough energy fast enough to outdistance our present and increasing demands? Recently I heard of an incident that - in an odd way - caused me to think of the energy race. The incident involved a sky-diver who jumped from an airplane without a parachute. He was handed a chute in mid-air by a sky-diving companion. He put it on, opened it, and landed safely. In a way, it seems to me that our society is hurtling through space and that it needs some help from the energy industries to land safely. We&apos;re doing our best, but under some rather difficult conditions. Because of illegal strikes and work stoppages the coal parachute is snarled a bit. The cut in percentage depletion and other tax changes have put some holes in the oil parachute. And the gas ´&apos;chute has been in trouble for some time because of unrealistic controls on producer prices. The irony of the situation is that some of the very people who have been taking potshots at the energy parachutes for a long time are the ones who are complaining loudest now because the &apos;chutes are not functioning the way they could. The safety of the entire nation can depend on the energy industries.

Jan 1, 1971

By Robert Maddin

The application of electrolytic polishing of metals introduced a new technique for preparing surfaces, especially for single crystals. This procedure generallv has been assumed to eliminate the strain introduced by mechanical polishing and to result in a more truly representative surface, particularly in the case of soft metallic materials. However, apparently little information is available concerning specific characteristics of a surface prepared electrolytically. The conventional method of mechanical polishing is known to produce a layer of distorted metal which is usually removed by a suitable chemical etchant. To what depth the strain introduced by mechanical polishing penetrates into the lattice is still obscure. The present investigation illustrates the apparently anomalous appearances of glide ellipses on electrolytically polished surfaces of aluminum single crystals. Experimental Procedure and Results Aluminum single crystals, 99.975 pct pure, remaining from the investigation of Found,&apos; were polished electrolytically using a solution of fluoboric acid and a low current density. Laue back-reflection technique, interpreted after the manner of Greninger,2 was used to determine the orientation and the specimen axis rotation of the crystals. Three flat surfaces about 4 mm wide parallel to the specimen axis, one perpendicular to the theoretical slip direction and the other two 120° apart, were polished mechanically and repolished electrolytically. A tensile load was applied using a Southwark-Emery tensile machine at a rate of about 40 lb per min. Elongation was measured by noting the initial and final gauge lengths. X ray diffraction was used to obtain the usual x and X values in order to calculate the elongation and shear by plotting stereographically the specimen axis rotation by means of the Schmid-Boas formula.³ In Table I may be found the value of the gauge diameter, measured elongation, calculated elongation and shear for the crystals investigated. Fig I shows the initial and final positions of the specimen axes of the crystals. At a low magnification the slip lines developed on specimen Al-I appeared straight and rather evenly spaced. However, at a high magnification, the slip lines were seen to be composed of small markings which were present throughout the length of the specimen (Fig 2). The distance between the markings was fairly constant and their directions all parallel to One another&apos; Fig 3-57 photographed On different surfaces of the specimen, illustrate the interesting appearance of these lines. It may be noticed from Fig 4 that the markings, which present the appearance of

Jan 1, 1949

By Robert Maddin

THE application of electrolytic polishing of metals introduced a new technique for preparing surfaces, especially for single crystals. This procedure has generally been assumed to eliminate the strain introduced by mechanical polishing and to result in a more truly representative surface, particularly in the case of soft metallic materials. However, apparently little information is available concerning specific characteristics of a surface prepared electrolytically. The conventional method of mechanical polishing is known to produce a layer of distorted metal which is usually removed by a suitable chemical etchant. To what depth the strain introduced by mechanical polishing penetrates into the lattice is still obscure. The present investigation illustrates the apparently anomalous appearances of glide ellipses on electrolytically polished surfaces of aluminum single crystals. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE AND RESULTS Aluminum single crystals, 99.975 pct pure, remaining from the investigation of Found,1 were polished electrolytically using a solution of fluoboric acid and a low current density. Laue back-reflection technique, interpreted after the manner of Greninger,2 was used to determine the orientation and the specimen axis rotation of the crystals. Three flat surfaces about 4 mm wide parallel to the specimen axis, one perpendicular to the theoretical slip direction and the other two 1200 apart, were polished mechanically and repolished electrolytically. A tensile load was applied using a Southwark-Emery tensile machine at a rate of about 40 lb per min. Elongation was measured by noting the initial and final gauge lengths. X ray diffraction was used to obtain the usual X and X values in order to calculate the elongation and shear by plotting stereographically the specimen axis rotation by means of the Schmid-Boas formula.3 In Table I may be found the value of the gauge diameter, measured elongation, calculated elongation and shear for the crystals investigated. Fig 1 shows the initial and final positions of the specimen axes of the crystals. [ ] At a low magnification the slip lines developed on specimen Al-I appeared straight and rather evenly spaced. However, at a high magnification, the slip lines were seen to be composed of small markings which were present throughout the length of the specimen (Fig 2). The distance between the markings was fairly constant and their directions all parallel to one another. Fig 3-5, photographed on different surfaces of the specimen, illustrate the interesting appearance of these lines. It may be noticed from Fig 4 that the markings, which present the appearance of

Jan 1, 1948

By C. H. Aldrich

For many years the City of Prescot, about 8 miles northeast of Liverpool, has been the home of British Insulated Cables, Ltd., one of the largest wire mills and manufacturers of electrical equipment in England. Since this location is close to the industrial center of the country and the seaboard, with good railroad transportation facilities, it was a logical site for the new refinery. Early in April, 1932, the writer was called upon to prepare a preliminary layout and estimate of cost of the proposed plant, and shortly afterward, following a discussion of these figures with officials of British Insulated Cables, in England, the decision was reached to proceed immediately with construction of the plant. The refinery was built by British Insulated Cables, Ltd. Designing of the plant was started early in May, 1932, orders for equipment being placed as rapidly as possible. On July 18 the first steel was erected and the first charge was cast on Jan. 5, 1933. No difficulties of any consequence were experienced in starting the plant and the grade of copper produced was quite satisfactory after the first charge. The initial capacity desired was 2500 tons of refined copper per month. Since only one furnace was to be built, it was necessary that it should have sufficient reserve capacity to catch up after unavoidable shutdowns. It was also necessary to lay out the plant so that it would operate efficiently at this tonnage and at the same time permit expansion in the future, if necessary, to several times its original capacity. In order to meet these conditions and also to take full advantage of the space available, the layout shown in Fig. 1 was adopted. The principal plant structures are a blister storage aisle, casting building, wire-bar storage building and a coal-pulverizing building. Additional smaller structures include a brick and charcoal shed, pumphouse, drill room, water-cooling tower, clay-preparation shed, substation and plant office. Incoming blister is received in either broad-gage railway cars or steam motor lorries in the blister storage aisle, unloaded by overhead electric crane to narrow-gage cars, weighed and sampled, then either sent directly to the furnace or placed in storage. After refining, the copper is cast on the wheel, passes through the cooling bosh and is

Jan 1, 1934

By John T. Galey

The outstanding developments of the year in southwestern Pennsylvania were the establishment of the Summit Fayette County gas pool and the gas pool in Nicholson township, Fayette County, and Monongahela township, Greene County, as major producing areas, and the indication of four new shallow gas pools. Curtailment of drilling for shallow gas is expected to follow order M68 of the Office of Production Management. Gas completions were approximately 70 per cent higher, oil completions nearly 25 per cent lower, dry holes were unchanged and drilling wells as of Dec. 31, 1941, nearly loo per cent higher than last year. Shallow Development Oil.—Outside Butler County, only 11 producers were drilled, with a total initial of 221 bbl. The best of these was in a portion of Gilmore township, Greene County, which ordinarily produces gas. This well flowed 77 bbl. in 11 hr., along with about one million cubic feet of gas from the Fourth (U.Dev.) sand. Washington County had a 10.20 and a 25-bbl. well in Morris township and a 20-bbl. well in South Franklin township. These were all in the Fifth Sand. The price of oil to Jan. 27 was $1.80 per barrel, when a 15¢ increase was made. This was followed by a raise of 20¢ on Apr. 23, 15¢ on May 21, 20¢ on June 18 and 25¢ on Aug. 14. The last increase was canceled on Aug. 23 by the Office of Price Administration, which pegged southwestern Pennsylvania crude at $2.40 per barrel. Gas.—An almost doubled initial production of natural gas is the result of the large increase in number of wells drilled. The outstanding discovery of the year was in the vicinity of Armbrust, Hempfield township, Westmoreland County, where a well drilled to what at first was considered the Bayard sand, but what is now known to be the Fifth (U.Dev.) sand, at 2100 ft. found nearly 5 million cu. ft. of gas. Since this completion 14 wells have been finished, only one of which was dry, giving a combined total open flow of approximately 15 million cu. ft. The sand is 35 to 40 ft. thick and the saturation extends through most of that thickness. Rock pressure, which is 1040 lb. per sq. in., is abnormally high. An area of only about one square mile has been proven but some of the 24 new wells drilling as of Dec. 31 will no doubt extend it considerably. This development has taken place in an area heretofore considered to have had little prospect. There were three good wells in other parts of Westmoreland County. One well in Franklin township, which had 12 million cu. ft, of gas in the Fifth sand, was entirely surrounded by dry holes but is still pro- . ducing at a high rate. In Bell township a 1.6 million cu. ft. well was found in the Speechley (U.Dev.) sand and in Washington township the same sand produced 2.7 million cu. ft. with shut-in pressure of 970 Ib. at 2820 ft. This well is offset by two dry holes and one well with a capacity of only 10 M cubic feet.

Jan 1, 1942