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By AIME AIME

THE Petroleum Division opened its proceedings on Wednesday morning, with two simultaneous sessions on engineering and economics. The first paper at the engineering session, over which A. W. Ambrose presided, was "Underground Surveys of Oil Wells," by Alexander Anderson of Los Angeles, Calif., was presented by John Suman of the Humble Oil & Refining Co., Houston, Texas. Following this, the paper of E.'H. Griswold of the Mailand Oil Co., Houston, Texas, was presented by C. V. Millikan of the Amerada Petroleum Corp., Tulsa, Oklahoma. Following the presentation of these two interesting papers a general discussion followed on the subject of "Crooked Holes." The discussion was entered into by F. H. Lahee, Sun Oil Co., Dallas, Texas;'Messrs. Bigelow of Tulsa, H. W. Hixon of New York City, Van Court Warren of Los Anyeles, Calif; H. L. Wheeler of St. Louis, Mo.; R. R. Brandenthaler, United States Bureau of Mines, Bartlesville, Okla.; H. H. Riggs, Indiana Territory Illuminating Oil Co., Bartlesville, Okla.; C. V. Millikan and John R. Suman

Jan 1, 1929

By R. J. Hopkins, L. B. Haney

On the basis of limited experimental work conducted at the Port Pirie smelter, it would appear that, by increasing the specific surface of sinter, and possibly that of coke as well, a marked increase in the rate and degree of sinter reduction in the furnace shaft can be achieved. Fusion-point tests have shown that this increased reduction means a much higher sinter fusion point and narrower plastic zone, while the more efficient utilization of coke in the furnace is inherent in the intensification of reduction by the provision of a more reactive sinter surface. Investigations aimed at increasing the ability to operate the blast furnace with a higher lead tenor of sinter reducing fuel cost proportionately, and at eliminating the loss in reduction potential in coke entering the furnace, as shown by the presence of appreciable proportions of CO in the top gases, are reported. Several lines for future investigations that could result in improved smelting methods are proposed. A SOMEWHAT informal presentation of ideas on lead blast-furnace smelting will be given in this paper. These ideas have been developed during observations of furnace behavior at Port Pirie and earlier at Mt. Isa, and have been guided by the results of laboratory experiments at Port Pirie. The authors do not intend to propound any particularly new theories, but present their ideas as a basis for discussion which may help toward a better understanding and improved control of blast-furnace operation. Performance variations of considerable magnitude occur from time to time at most lead blast-furnace plants. While Port Pirie is fortunate in having a very regular supply of high grade concentrates, it is no exception in this respect. Such irregularities are of considerable economic importance and they constitute a challenge to present-day metallurgists in their efforts to obtain an ever greater degree of control over furnace operation. In operating as Port Pirie does with a relatively high lead charge, it has been recognized for a long time that shaft conditions are ,of the greatest importance. A practical, or engineering, attack on the problem of accretions consisted of changes in furnace design, e.g., by widening the shaft to 10 ft above the bottom row of tuyeres, and by the provision of curved ends and vertical walls.' That this attack has had a great measure of success is shown by the fact that barring down of these wide furnaces is rarely necessary, shaft conditions have greatly improved, and sensitivity to charge variations has been markedly reduced. These modifications, followed by some metallurgical changes (chiefly the incorporation of pig iron into the furnace charge in 1948), have brought furnace operation to a point where some variables which were previously masked can now be studied. Accordingly, over different periods of time during the last five years, such variables as could be given numerical values have been recorded and subjected to statistical examination. The objectives of this work were: 1—to reveal the true importance of the different variables and 2—to show the proportion of total furnace variation which is unexplained and therefore referable to causes not measured at present? e.g., shaft accretions, sinter structure, coke structure, and others. Statistical Study of Variables In this work factors relating to furnace speed and lead reduction have been examined: 1—slag com-

Jan 1, 1955

By Eugene McAuliffe

MANAGEMENT and control of any body of workmen can be effected through various - well-known methods ' though many managers hold certain personal theories of control that range from an absolute dictatorship to what might be called the principle of laissez faire, or the "let alone" method. Managements of many mines, factories, smelters and refineries have been compelled in recent years to accept certain restrictions in hours of labor as well as in methods employed, imposed either by federal or state laws, or by labor agreements. Broadly speaking, regulations of the above character were brought on the industry by managers who failed to recognize fully the rights of their employees to proper sanitary, safe, and compensatory working conditions, as well as working hours that were proper and just. As an example of poor management and worse psychology, we have only to hark back to the days when many bituminous coal operators maintained an inadequate number of pit cars for the number of miners or loaders employed, or if the pit cars were available, the haulage facilities

Jan 1, 1934

By E. I. Larsen, E. F. Swazy, F. R. Hensel

High strength, high-conductivity copper-base alloys have found considerable use in the resistance welding and electrical industry in the form of castings, forgings, or wrought products. There are a number of parts utilized by these industries which would lend themselves to manufacture by powder metallurgical methods provided the required physical and electrical properties are obtainable with such methods. The present paper describes the results of a study of certain copper-base powder metallurgical products susceptible to precipitation hardening. Copper Powders The general types of commercially available copper powders are flake, spherical and electrolytic. Micrographs of these three types are shown in Figs. I, 2 and 3. The difference in particle shape is pronounced and obvious. The type of powder used is determined, or at least indicated, by the final properties desired in the finished article. The type of powder employed during the present investigation was electrolytic powder shown in Fig. 3, and was chosen because of its particular adaptability to the work described in this Paper. The screen and chemical analyses of this powder are shown in Table I. In the preparation of compacts of high electrical conductivity, the purity of the copper powder is of importance in addition to other factors, such as density and the state of internal stresses. These variables were studied briefly by pressing a number of compacts to various pressed densities, sintering them for one hour in hydrogen at 975OC and repressing. The size of the finished compacts was 1/4, by % by 8 in. The time interval from the application to the termination of pressure was approximately 20 sec. Some of the compacts were annealed before testing. The results are listed in Figs. 4 to 8, inclusive. In Fig. 4 the curves of pressed density vs. compacting pressure, and sintered density versus compacting pressure show the typical direct relationship of pressure and density. Compacting pressures exceeding about 30 tons per sq. in. result fiequently in expansion during sintering for the type of powder used. Fig. 5 indicates that variations in the initial pressed density within the range of about 5 to 6 grams per c, c., affect only slightly the pressure required to obtain a

Jan 1, 1946

By E. I. Larsen, E. F. Swazy, F. R. Hensel

High strength, high-conductivity copper-base alloys have found considerable use in the resistance welding and electrical industry in the form of castings, forgings, or wrought products. There are a number of parts utilized by these industries which would lend themselves to manufacture by powder metallurgical methods provided the required physical and electrical properties are obtainable with such methods. The present paper describes the results of a study of certain copper-base powder metallurgical products susceptible to precipitation hardening. Copper Powders The general types of commercially available copper powders are flake, spherical and electrolytic. Micrographs of these three types are shown in Figs. I, 2 and 3. The difference in particle shape is pronounced and obvious. The type of powder used is determined, or at least indicated, by the final properties desired in the finished article. The type of powder employed during the present investigation was electrolytic powder shown in Fig. 3, and was chosen because of its particular adaptability to the work described in this Paper. The screen and chemical analyses of this powder are shown in Table I. In the preparation of compacts of high electrical conductivity, the purity of the copper powder is of importance in addition to other factors, such as density and the state of internal stresses. These variables were studied briefly by pressing a number of compacts to various pressed densities, sintering them for one hour in hydrogen at 975OC and repressing. The size of the finished compacts was 1/4, by % by 8 in. The time interval from the application to the termination of pressure was approximately 20 sec. Some of the compacts were annealed before testing. The results are listed in Figs. 4 to 8, inclusive. In Fig. 4 the curves of pressed density vs. compacting pressure, and sintered density versus compacting pressure show the typical direct relationship of pressure and density. Compacting pressures exceeding about 30 tons per sq. in. result fiequently in expansion during sintering for the type of powder used. Fig. 5 indicates that variations in the initial pressed density within the range of about 5 to 6 grams per c, c., affect only slightly the pressure required to obtain a

Jan 1, 1946

Jan 1, 1955

By E. R. Kaiser

COAL research during 1942 was directed in an important degree toward the solution of problems of wartime importance. A wider selection of coals for carbonization to meet the increased demand for coke, and the improved utilization of lower-grade coals for boiler fuel were made possible by fundamental studies on cod and ash behavior that had been started several years ago. The coal industry's interest in the work of the various laboratories brightened significantly as results were demonstrated on smokeless combustion in stoves, on stokers without coke trees, and on pulverized firing of forge furnaces. Despite the limitations of priorities and scarcity of materials, the mineral industries building of the West Virginia University was completed and equipped with facilities for research on coal min

Jan 1, 1943

By T. R. Wright

IN few mining regions in the world are the ores so varied and complex as in the Andes of central Peru. Consequently, in few localities is one company engaged in so many and such diverse metallurgical operations as the Cerro de Pasco Copper Corp. Concurrent with the mining of complex lead-zinc ores in Peru, and the consequent expansion of the Corporation's metallurgical activities, a department of metallurgical research was established in 1927 at La Orova. Facilities were provided for research in ore dressing, hydronivtallurgy pyrometallurgy, electrometallurgy, and analytical chemistry. In addition to laboratories. various pilot plants were built, including a concentrator, leaching plant, "by-product" smelter, and electrolytic refineries. These pilot plants are not diminutive units; they are designed and equipped as semicommercial plants for operation on a continuous 24-hour basis thus assuring the duplication of pilot plant results in actual practice. In general, the sequence in the development of metallurgical operations hasbeen as follows: (1) investigations in the laboratory to determine the most effective and economical method of treatment; (2) continuation of the research project on a pilot-plant scale when the evaluation of the laboratory

Jan 1, 1945

By David B. Reger

Widespread wildcatting for new supplies of natural gas and the beginning of importation from the southwest characterized the petroleum industry of West Virginia during 1944. Within the state, drilling for oil did not increase but. more gas wells were completed than in any previous year since 1937. Out of 40 wildcats drilled there were 25 gas discoveries and 15 dry holes. No commercial oil was found in the 40 wells. The proved limits of several oil pools were slightly extended by marginal drilling, resulting in 1300 acres of new oil territory, although no distinctly new pools were found. At least four new gas pools were assuredly discovered and various successful wildcats indicate future pools or wide extensions. The new proved gas territory, in definite new pools and definite extensions, is about 34,000 acres. A considerable net decline of proved oil has occarred and probably a slight decline of proved gas reserves. The account of operations, as gathered from trade journals and other reporting services, shows that 918 new wells were drilled, resulting in 71 oil wells with 613 bbl. of daily new production; 577 gas wells with 305,372,000 cu. ft. of daily open flow, and 142 dry holes. Also, 107 old wells were drilled to deeper sands, with 22 bbl. and 12,327,000 cu. ft. of added production. On the new wells the oil average was 8.6 bbl. per well per day, and the gas average was 529,241 CU. ft. per well per day. On new wells the ratio of dry holes to completions was 15.47 per cent. On deeper drilling the ratio of failures was 19.63 per cent. Production of oil for the year was estimated by the Oil Weekly as 3,069,000 bbl., as compared with 3,349,000 bbl. in 1943. Production of natural gas for the year is estimated by the author as 200,000, 000,000 cu. ft., as compared with the U. S. Bureau of Mines final figures of 223,789,000,000 cu. ft.t in 1943.

Jan 1, 1945

By H. B. Fuqua, B. E. Thompson

The area discussed herein, commonly known as the North Texas district, embraces the following 10 counties: Archer, Baylor, Clay, Cooke, Foard, Hardeman, Knox, Montague, Wichita and Wilbarger. It is undcrlain by two major structural features. The northernmost portion of the district, including Cooke, Montague, northern Clay, Wichita, Wilbarger, Foard and Hardeman Counties, is underlain by the system of buried mountains known as the Red River uplift, which is parallel to and closely related to the Wichita-Amarillo uplift of Oklahoma and the Texas Panhandle. While the presence of a great majority of the numerous oil fields of the area is traceable to this feature, the production

Jan 1, 1938

By K. Kobayashi, K. Ueda, K. Yamaguchi

Lead concentrates from Kuroko (black ore) mines, which contain 4-7% Cu, 55% Pb, 3-777, Zn, and 0.5-0.9% As, are pretreated by a hydrometallurgical process before electric furnace smelting with other lead resources from Kuroko. The hydrometallurgical pretreatment involves sulfuric acid leaching in the first stage and ferric leaching in the second stage. This paper describes the short history of lead recovery from Kuroko and the performance of laboratory tests and pilot plant and commercial operations.

Jan 1, 1985

By B. E. Field

COBALT is a silvery white metal with a slight bluish cast, strongly resembling nickel in its appearance and properties, notably its resistance to corrosion, although its alloys with other metals differ quite decidedly in their properties from those of nickel. The name cobalt was derived from the German "Kobold" meaning goblin and this came to be applied to the cobalt minerals which, although they resembled ores, did not readily yield metal when smelted by the primitive processes available in the Middle Ages. Cobalt minerals were used as pigments by potters and glass workers before the Christian era. Cobalt blue glass was found in the tombs of the Egyptians and in the ruins of Troy, and many colors used by the ancient Greeks and Romans contained cobalt. The ancients were entirely unaware that the colors they used were caused by cobalt and the metal itself was only isolated about the middle of the eighteenth century by Brandt although the preparation of cobalt compounds had been carried on in a small way ever since the opening of the silver-cobalt deposits at Schneeberg, Germany, in 1470. The metal is fairly hard, with a density when pure of 8.81 in the cast state and 8.92 after working. The com¬mercial grade of cobalt has a density of about 8.75 in the cast state. The atomic weight is 58.97. The Brinell hardness of the pure metal is 124; that of the commercial grade varies from as low as 100 to as high as 138, depending upon the impurities present. Pure cobalt has a sharp melting point at 1478°C. The tensile strength of the pure metal in the cast condition is said to be higher than that of any other pure metal. Kalmus gives it as 34,400 lb. per sq. in. for cast unannealed metal; the effect of annealing at 850 to 900°C. is to raise the strength slightly. The yield point is close to the ultimate strength and the reduction in area and elongation are both low. Mechanical working raises the tensile strength of pure cobalt rapidly and in the form of wire it will be over 100,000 lb. per sq. in. The presence of small quantities of carbon in the commercial metal raises the tensile strength to as high as 61,000 lb. per sq. in., the reduction in area and elongation being raised at the same time to approximately 20 per cent.

Jan 1, 1933

By J. D. Hanawalt

Significant strides were made in the year 1948 leading to further recognition of the place of magnesium as a common commercial metal, rather than as just a premium aircraft material. One of the factors contributing to this recognition was the price stability and, in many cases, price reduction of magnesium products in 1948. In contrast to most other metals, manufacturing advances in magnesium outweighed the effects of increased labor and other costs. At the present time, many magnesium extrusions, die castings, and permanent mold castings can be purchased as cheaply as their aluminum counterparts in these forums, though competitive prices for sheet still await the inauguration of a modern tandem rolling mill for magnesium, such as has already been demonstrated.

Jan 1, 1949

By O. C. Wheeler

Peru, if it is judged on a basis of its annual production rate, can be ranked seventh among the oil-producing countries of the Western Hemisphere. In 1945, as in each of the three previous years, the country again produced about 14 million barrels of crude petroleum.

Jan 1, 1946

Gus C. Henning, New York City: In taking up the discussion of these specifications it is necessary that I give definitions of what I understand under the term " Specifications." There may be three kinds, viz.: (1) Specifications in general; (2) Standard Specifications; (3) Standard International Specifications. 1. A Specification is a document used in commerce which should clearly define the qualities of material to be supplied by the producer, the tests which shall be applied for their determination, and the methods which shall be applied for the purpose of determining that the entire product shall possess such qualities, properties and finish as are desired. The terms used in such document must be applied in accordance with their strict technical definitions as used by those most conversant with them, and the language should be of such accuracy that there can be but a single interpretation of each and every clause. A specification is a part of a contract, and should be legally perfect and accurate. Inaccuracy of definition and dic-

Jan 1, 1903

By AIME AIME

THE Tuesday afternoon session", H. A. Bedworth chairman and T. S. Fuller, vice-chairman, was opened with D. J. McAdam, Jr.'s paper entitled "The Influence of Cyclic Stress on Corrosion." This paper dealt with the influence of cyclic stress on corrosion of alloy steels, corrosion-resisting steels, monel metal and aluminum alloys. The paper was discussed by T. S. Fuller, who pointed out that steels under stress corroded more than unstressed steels when subjected to steam.

Jan 1, 1930

By R. W. Raymond

(Chattanooga Meeting, October, 1908.) THE immense commercial value of the Gayley dry-blast process has been established beyond controversy. The testimony of practical blast-furnace managers, on both sides of the Atlantic, agrees that it reduces the cost of pig-iron about $1 per ton; but from the same testimony it appears that this direct economy does not by any means cover its commercial advantages-in fact, that under conditions frequently encountered in practice, it presents other benefits of even greater immediate financial importance. To this point I shall recur in a later part of the present paper. The history of the reception given to this invention, especially on the other side of the Atlantic, has repeated an experience familiar to American engineers. First, the reports of our practice were rejected as theoretically impossible, according to generally accepted notions and formulas; then the figures were reluctantly accepted ; and finally the attempt has been made to explain how they could have been obtained. As to the Gayley dry blast, we Americans have been for several years in the last stage of the discussion, and the rest of the professional world is rapidly coming to it. Meanwhile, the remark has been repeatedly made that, whatever Mr. Gayley's process may turn out to be worth, it was not an invention on his part, but simply the energetic and persevering execution of a procedure already proposed by others. This question I wish to discuss first in the present paper. I. WHAT DID MR. GAYLEY INVENT Realizing that this is not the place for detailed argument on an issue of patent law, I shall not undertake to quote and criticise the publications prior to Mr. Gayley's first patents. It may be admitted, without such critical analysis, that the possi-

Jan 1, 1909

By R. W., Ludt

THE use of froth flotation for the separation of minerals has become one of the most important of ore dressing processes. Its particular adaptability to the enrichment of low grade ores has made the process an important factor in the national economy. The methods have been extended to the recovery of a great number of minerals. Among the few minerals which have resisted efforts toward industrial flotation is chrysocolla, a hydrated partly colloidal copper silicate. Chrysocolla, being a product of natural oxidation, has been found to occur in small quantities with many ores which are recovered by flotation methods. In present practice, these small quantities of copper silicate pass off with the tailings and are lost. The advantages to be gained by a satisfactory process for the recovery of chrysocolla is apparent. Any application of principles which points a way toward the satisfactory industrial flotation process for copper silicate would be of advantage. This paper presents an attack on this problem.

Jan 1, 1949

By Ralph H. Sweetser

BENEFICIATION of iron ores from the blast-furnace point of view means more than the usual enrichment of the iron contents by the removal of a large part of the clay, carbonic acid gas, silica, or moisture of the natural ore; it includes all these, but it also embraces several other mechanical .processes made , necessary by the exacting requirements of present-day blast-furnace practice. The increasing use of iron- bearing by-products, to as much as a third or more of the total ore burden, has introduced still another series of processes for improving the blast-furnace ore burden. As we look back over the past three decades of blast- furnace practice 'in. this country, we see that many of the blast-furnace troubles were directly due to lack of proper preparation of the iron ore burden,, and we realize that beneficiation in one form or another would have remedied the trouble. This was particularly true in the smelting of magnetic iron ores, where run-of- mine ore included such big lumps of 'magnetite along with rich fines that the furnace operations were greatly retarded and control of the furnace such as is usual today, was completely unknown.

Jan 1, 1930

By Franklin G. Pardee

IN 1920 the Minnesota Tax Commission estimated a reserve of 1,341,674,538 long tons of iron ore in Minnesota, the Michigan State Tax Commission report showed 199,092,855 long tons in reserve in that state, and the Wisconsin Geological Survey set the Wisconsin reserves at 21,500,000 long tons. The total reserve that year for the Lake Superior District amounted to 1,562,267,393 long tons. Ten years later the reserves of iron ore in these same districts were Minnesota 1,235,227,510, Michigan 168,349,823, and Wisconsin 23,000,000, or a total of 1,426,577,333 long tons. The decrease in ore reserves in this ten-year period was 135,690,060 long tons, but the shipments were 520,746,975 long tons. In other words, the ten-year depletion in reserves was only 8.68 per cent. If similar conditions carry into the future this calculation would indicate a life for the ore reserves of the Lake Superior region of over 100 years.

Jan 1, 1933