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By E. G. Bailey

PLANTS that normally burn coal now able too obtain a substantial increase over their normal supply for their greater power needs, and also additional tonnage for extra storage against the uncertainties of the future. Many plants previously burning oil or gas have already been converted to coal, and those which must yet change to coal will undoubtedly be able to obtain ample tonnage of coal of standard quality at reasonable prices. What a contrast this is to the conditions of 25 years ago, when the shortage of coal and transportation led to prices of $5 to $6 per ton at the mines, and degradation of quality, until the already overburdened railroads were called upon to haul 100,000 ton per day of extra ash alone. This was the result of a runaway market and the loading of gob, slate, and sub-quality coal amounting to an estimated increase in ash of 5 per cent of the total tonnage hauled. The problem of getting increased steam output from inferior coal caused unbelievable reductions in the low normal boiler efficiency of that time and untold labor in firing the hand- and stoker-fed furnaces of that day.

Jan 1, 1942

By J. C. Bradley

The relation of annealing temperature to conductivity of copper wire has been determined. Conductivity hard was 98.26 per cent. After a 10-min. heat,ing at 200" C. it was 98.69. By annealing 10 min. at 300" C. a large increase, to 100.93, occurred. Maximum conductivity, 101.15, was attained after a 500" C. anneal; thereafter it decreased to 100.53 after a 950" C. anneal. If copper is gassed the decrease is much more than this. Material and Method The work was done on high grade electrolytic copper, 99.942 per cent, copper plus silver, silver 0.0008 per cent. It was hot-rolled to 1/4 in., then cold drawn to 0.080 in. The wire was cut into 25 5-ft. lengths and numbered 1 to 25 as cut. Four samples were tested hard. The others were wound into 5-in. diameter coils. For the 100" C. heating a coil was put into water, the water brought to . boiling, and the wire kept at this temperature for 10 min. For the higher temperatures the coils were placed in envelopes of sheet copper, a little water added, and the envelopes sealed by folding over the edges twice, and hammering them together. This kept the air out very well. The envelope and wire were brought to the desired temperature; this was maintained for 10 min., then the whole was water-quenched. Results Data from the tests are shown in the table and plot (see Fig. 1); conductivity is referred to the International Annealed Copper Standard at 20" C. Conductivity hard is considerably less than conductivity soft.1 The increase is sharp when the wire anneals. The maximum, 101.15 per cent, in the particular material used, comes at 500º C.; thereafter the conductivity falls to 100.53 per cent. after 950" C. annealing, a drop of 0.62 per cent.

Jan 1, 1927

By A. C. Lane

Relations de la profondeur de plissement avec la gravita-tion et la hauteur des montagnes dans les Alpes. Par A. Heim (Zurich) 50me Anniversaire, Livre Jubilaire Soc. Geol. De Belgique, Rome, Fascicule 1, 17 to 28. Measurements show a negative anomaly, less densities of .the material below sea level. The author expresses it in terms of the thickness of rocks of an arbitrary density, 2.4, which might be considered wanting. The accordant heights of the summits, the depths of the folds, the deficiency in .gravity, and denudation he finds to be connected. The Alps float on the lightness of the folds of "sal" of weight 2.6 to 2.75 plunged into the heavier "Sima" according to a for-mula: P = h (2.7/2.8-2.7) where - P is the depth of fold-ing below sea level; 2.7 is the weight of the material accu-mulated in folding; 2.8 is the weight of the material dis-placed by it; and h is the mean height of the mountainous regions. For instance, between the valley of Saar and the Val de Bagne in Valais the depth of the folds according to Ar-gand's profiles is between 30 and 40 kilometers. The loss of gravity has been estimated in this region as 1450 X 2.4 = 3480 in units of weight. Obviously errors in the densities would profoundly affect the estimates of the thickness of folding, but his depths of folds are obtained from sections, and from them he works back to the densities. Of course other densities might be placed in the formula. Zur Dichte bestimmung von Tonen. By J. Koenigsberger, Berg u. Hüttenmannisches Jahrbuch, 75, I. Discusses Dr. B. Wilser's investigations as to the best way of obtaining the weight of rocks per unit volume. The use of mercury for rocks affected by water as there recom-mended may easily give too large volumes unless 1 to 3 atm. pressure is used. Thick machine oil is recommended for large lumps of clay.

Jan 4, 1928

W. L. Saunders, New York, N. Y.:—Mr. Parker's paper, though entitled Conservation of Coal, might also be called the Conservation of Life in the Coal-Mines of the United States. No subject is of greater importance to mining-men at the present time than information from experts as to how to save coal and how to save human lives in mines. That the casualties in the coal-mines should exceed 3,000 in the year 1907 is simply appalling, and that 1,000 men should have been killed in a single year through explosions alone, and that so good an authority as Mr. Parker should say that " a prolific cause " is an "improperly-prepared blast" or "the failure on the part of the miner to undercut his coal," points to the importance of activity not only among mining engineers but also, through experts, by the legislatures of the respective States. There is but little doubt that nearly all the serious coal-mine

Jan 1, 1910

By Charles Will Wright

FRANCE will be given a large portion of the Marshall Plan funds for relief, reconstruction, and industrial development in France and in her colonial possessions. At present that country is not in position to export any large tonnages of the mineral products needed in the United States. However, if, through Marshall Plan aid and private capital investment, production of these products can be largely increased, agreement should be made by which the United States is to get a substantial portion of such increased output in part payment for the material and technical aid they receive. France issued a decree, published in the "Official Gazette" on Feb. 3, 1948, which permits conversion into dollars of dividends derived from dollar investment in Government-approved projects and will agree to a scale of capital amortization to be determined in each individual case. This decree is to encourage private capital to cooperate with local capital in industrial undertakings. The French Colonial Ministry has prepared an extensive program for aid to the mining industries in overseas possessions to be undertaken by

Jan 1, 1948

By Harry H. Power

INDUSTRY has the right to expect the petroleum engineering schools to supply more than the minimum technical qualifications necessary to obtain or discharge the responsibilities of a particular job. The basic training, social and economic orientation, should go far beyond these minimum requirements. Petroleum engineering students should also be well grounded in the history of the oil business so that they may understand the industry's progress since the advent of the Drake well. Furthermore, according to P. H. Bohart, the schools "have a definite duty to help the students form a workable philosophy of life, which includes an appreciation of the service of science to mankind, and a belief in the obligation of the individual who enters a profession to exalt himself by continuing his studies and growth so that he may never cease making contributions to the advancement of science and industry."

Jan 1, 1948

By Charles Hart

A STUDY of the various ores that have been discussed impresses one with the need of beneficiation, in many cases. This applies to the ores that have lain dormant, due to necessity for further preparation, or to ores that now find a market due to a changed condition. Processes of beneficiation will come into their own as our richer ores become exhausted. Many efforts at improvement have been commercial failures, due to prematurity. Thomas A. Edison, with characteristic foresight, attempted concentration of the low- grade New Jersey magnetites some thirty years ago. Due to high costs and the discovery of the Mesabi range, his efforts were futile. However, a successful crusher, designed by Mr. Edison, resulted from this attempt. Agglomeration of concentrates had not, at that time, been brought to its present efficiency, when sinters and briquettes of excellent physical condition are obtainable. Recent efforts in the beneficiation of the lean magnetites of the East Mesabi resulted in an excellent sinter, but that operation is also ahead of its time.

Jan 1, 1929

By HAROLD VINTON COES

MANAGEMENT has been tersely defined as getting things done through the efforts of other people; but before we proceed further, let us distinguish between administration, management, and organization. Oliver Sheldon in his book, "The Philosophy of Management," offers the following definitions: Administration is the function in industry concerned in the determination of the corporate policy, the co-ordination of finance, production, and distribution, the settlement of the compass of the organization, and the ultimate control of the executive.

Jan 1, 1943

By W. S. Tower

STEEL is the basic metal, the main metallic prop of the modern industrial world, a good gage for measuring the state of our complex economy. Any who had doubts on that score should have had them dispelled by the many evidences of public concern over the affairs of the steel industry in recent months. I do not need to relate the various criticisms of the industry, nor the questions about its policies and performance which have come in a rising flood, especially from unthinking and irresponsible sources. But judged from the standpoint of production, or from plans to improve and expand facilities, or from technical progress, the facts about the steel industry are proof of

Jan 1, 1948

By S. H. Ash, J. J. Forbes

Probably the newest thing in mining safety, or safety for mines, is the apparent dissatisfaction on the part of the mineral industries, as represented by both management and labor, and the general public of the Nation, with the safety record of the mining industry. This is reflected by published comments and papers in the technical press;l-9 in labor periodicals,10,11 in popular journals and periodicals,l2, 13 and in the daily press; also by discussions of the Safety Committees sponsored by the National Safety Council,9, 14-15 the American Mining Congress,l.l6 the American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers,2,4 the Mine Inspectors' Institute of Amerthe Coal Mining Institute of America,5 19 the American Standards Association, and others.20.21 Mining safety is a joint problem of management and the individual workman. Safety is not attained and will not be attained solely by laws, decrees, and commands because, if it could be done in this manner, acceptable mining safety would have been achieved long ago by the individual states in our Nation and by the nations abroad. The best safety performance is found at plants where management provides a safe environment for the workers; where supervision is efficient and super- visors, others concerned with promoting safety, and the individual worker know through training, experience, and personal contact the safe and unsafe practices of their field; and where the trained individual worker has become safety-minded by experience, quiet influence, unconscious suggestion, and personal guidance. Despite what may be said to the contrary, progress has been and is being made in mining safety. This is shown in Fig 1 to 4. It is beyond the scope of this paper to give possible reasons for the valleys and peaks in the fatal-injury rates. Some recent factors that appear to be contributing to the improvement in these rates are briefly discussed. Aside from mining equipment, "what's new in mining safety" for some mines has been in effect or was tried by others long ago. A safety pro- gram is a living thing; as such, it must be vitalized and continuously fed with enthusiasm, constructive action, and improvements. Because safety is concerned with human conduct, it is necessary to practice safety at all times; if not, it is soon forgotten, and accidents occur. Mining-safety Records The large employment and production concerned with anthracite contribute much to the mining-safety records of the mineral industry. Approximately 81,000 persons are. employed in this industry having mines concentrated in an area of 480 square miles in northeastern Pennsylvania. Because of the achievement of the anthracite industry in safety during 1948, the other branches of the mineral industry can profit by a study of what has been done to achieve that record. Where one mineral is produced by other large groups having methods of mining that are similar in many respects to the anthracite-mining methods, an achievement in such a large industry is important. Salient factors concerned with safetye in the anthracite industry are: no radical change has occurred in the mining-safety regulations pertaining to anthracite mines. Because anthracite mining is a branch of the coal-mining industry,

Jan 1, 1950

By Carleton C. Long, George F. Weaton

Two years ago the general features of the St. Joseph Lead Company's zine-smelting process were described.' At that time the discussion was limited to a description of the production of high-purity electrothermic zinc oxide. The present paper will describe the commercial production of electrothermic zinc metal. Since a fairly complete description of the plant of the Josephtowlz smelter was given in the earlier paper, the brief recapitulation given here will be limited to mention of additional equip-ment recently installed and a bare outline of the preparatory process. The raw material is zinc sulphide concentrate received from the company's mines in St. Lawrence County, New York. An average dry-weight analysis of this material is: Zn, 58.28 per cent; Pb, 0.56; insoluble, 1.6; SiO², 1.12; Fe, 6.4; CaO, 0.47; MgO, 0.27; S, 31.9; Cd, 0.1; Cu, 0.06; Mn, 0.24. Moisture content is usually about 3 per cent. Three 21-ft. 6-in. diameter, 12-hearth Nichols-Herreshoff furnaces roast the coacentrate to a calcine of average conlposition (first 10 months of 1938): Zn, 67.69 per cent; Pb, 0.06; insoluble, 1.75; SiO², 1.26; Fe, 7.24; CaO, 0.47; MgO, 0.36; S, 1.88; Cd, 0.1; Cu, 0.07'; Mn, 0.27. The sulphur dioxide gas, after passing through a waste-heat boiler, proceeds through a recently redesigned low-resistance gas-purification assembly to the contact sulphuric acid plant, of which the capacity is 200 tons of concentrates per day. The calcine is mixed with a portion of returned furnace residues and sintered on 42-in, by 44-ft. Dwight-Lloyd sintering machines, gas-fired. Wind-box gases pass through air coolers before filtering in a 1440-bag Dracco unit, and thence to stack. The Dracco fume is mixed with Cottrell dust, from roaster gas cleaning, and sent to the leach plant, where it is roasted (SO² to acid plant) and leached with sulphuric acid to recover, as end products, lead sulphate, zinc sulphate and cadmium.

Jan 1, 1943

By George F. Weaton, Carleton C. Long

Two years ago the general features of the St. Joseph Lead Company's zine-smelting process were described.' At that time the discussion was limited to a description of the production of high-purity electrothermic zinc oxide. The present paper will describe the commercial production of electrothermic zinc metal. Since a fairly complete description of the plant of the Josephtowlz smelter was given in the earlier paper, the brief recapitulation given here will be limited to mention of additional equip-ment recently installed and a bare outline of the preparatory process. The raw material is zinc sulphide concentrate received from the company's mines in St. Lawrence County, New York. An average dry-weight analysis of this material is: Zn, 58.28 per cent; Pb, 0.56; insoluble, 1.6; SiO², 1.12; Fe, 6.4; CaO, 0.47; MgO, 0.27; S, 31.9; Cd, 0.1; Cu, 0.06; Mn, 0.24. Moisture content is usually about 3 per cent. Three 21-ft. 6-in. diameter, 12-hearth Nichols-Herreshoff furnaces roast the coacentrate to a calcine of average conlposition (first 10 months of 1938): Zn, 67.69 per cent; Pb, 0.06; insoluble, 1.75; SiO², 1.26; Fe, 7.24; CaO, 0.47; MgO, 0.36; S, 1.88; Cd, 0.1; Cu, 0.07'; Mn, 0.27. The sulphur dioxide gas, after passing through a waste-heat boiler, proceeds through a recently redesigned low-resistance gas-purification assembly to the contact sulphuric acid plant, of which the capacity is 200 tons of concentrates per day. The calcine is mixed with a portion of returned furnace residues and sintered on 42-in, by 44-ft. Dwight-Lloyd sintering machines, gas-fired. Wind-box gases pass through air coolers before filtering in a 1440-bag Dracco unit, and thence to stack. The Dracco fume is mixed with Cottrell dust, from roaster gas cleaning, and sent to the leach plant, where it is roasted (SO² to acid plant) and leached with sulphuric acid to recover, as end products, lead sulphate, zinc sulphate and cadmium.

Jan 1, 1943

By Herbert R. Hanley

THE One Hundred and Twenty-sixth meeting-of the Institute, held in San Francisco, Sept. 25 to 29, 1922, was a success in every way. Character-istically, San Francisco presented climate suited, to the occasion, while the Committees on Arrangements left nothing undone that would contribute to the interest and entertainment of the members and their wives. There was a registration of over 230, and all sections, save three, were represented. In the technical meetings, under the leadership of Albert Burch in the mining session and C. W. Merrill in the milling session, the greatest interest was manifested in ore-hunting geology and modern ore-dressing methods. The general geologic phase developed numerous discussions and had for its aim the study and correlation of known data and the application-of these to the finding of commercial orebodies. The geologic features of the Comstock and their significance to the development of the present orebodies were discussed. This brought out matters of much technical interest as well as those of romantic nature in the history of the early life of that camp. The profitable application of modern milling methods to ores, non-commercial a short time ago, was discussed with much interest. The recent work on the Comstock ores occupied a conspicuous part in these discussions. Basic principles delineated by mathematical study of mechanical devices for the milling of ore came in for a prominent part in the program as well as the physical-chemical side of the processes devised for the winning of precious metals as a profit.

Jan 11, 1922

By Frank G. Snyder, Paul E. Gerdemann

The Southeast Missouri lead district, located about 70 miles south of St. Louis, embraces four important sub-districts and several minor ones. The important sub-districts, in order of discovery, are Mine La Motte, the Old Lead Belt, Indian Creek, and the Viburnum Lead Belt. Descriptions that follow are of geology and ore deposits of the Old Lead Belt. The ore deposits are stratiform in character and are localized in a narrow carbonate bar and algal reef environment on the flanks of exposed Precambrian of the St. Francois Mountains. Ore structures include a variety of primary depositional features such as pinchout zones, disconformities, ridge structures, reefs, and submarine gravity slides. Faulting, prior to and during ore deposition, "prepared" the host rock and strongly fractured areas are mineralized much more intensively and extensively than unfractured parts of the same sedimentary structures. The deposits are epigenetic in character. Mineralization is believed to have occurred at the time that post-lower Ordovician faulting took place. The mineralizing solutions are believed to be concentrated brines from adjacent basins that moved out of the basins during faulting, uplift, and erosion of the St. Francois positive area.

Jan 1, 1968

By Harold Vance

The Lafitte field, the largest oil reserve in South Louisiana, is in Jefferson Parish, some 25 miles due south of the City of New Orleans. The discovery well, The Texas Company's No. I, Louisiana Land and Exploration Co., in the southeast corner of sec. 19, T. 17 S., R. 24 E., was completed on May 15, 1935. The initial production of this well was 960 bbl. of 34.9º A.P.I, gravity oil per day, through 1/4-in. choke, with a tubing pressure of 1600 lb. per sq. in. Producing depth was 9558 to 9572 ft., the total depth being 9572 feet. The development of the field has been at the rate of three to eight new producing wells per year. Up to Jan. I, 1944, 60 producing wells and three dry holes had been drilled, while two of the original producing wells had been abandoned, Although the field is not unitized, The Texas Company was the sole operator in the field until the Lafitte Oil Co. completed its NO. I Jefferson Parish, near the center of the west line of the NW/4 sec. 20, T. I7 S., R. 24 E., on July 27, 1941. No additional wells have been drilled by the Lafitte Oil Company. Drilling and WeLl-completion Practices All drilling operations have been conducted with the steam-driven rotary equipment mounted on submersible barges. A canal is dug to the well location and the drilling unit is floated into position. The seacocks are then opened and the barge settles to the bottom. After the well is completed, seacocks are closed and water is pumped out of the barge. This procedure permits the barge, with drilling equipment still in place, to be floated and moved off the location. The conventional open-hole and the gun-perforation method of completing wells has been used in this field. Where possible, the initial completion is from the deepest 'sand and recompletions are made progressively up the hole, by plugging back with cement to the upper sand and gun-perforating opposite the new sand. The oil string usually is 7 5/8 in., 26 to 34-lb. casing. Three wells have been completed using 9 5/8-in. 44-lb casing set below 10.000 feet. Fig. I shows the completion and recom-pletion practices on one well in the field. This figure also shows the relative locations of the different producing sands as shown on the electric well log. Structure The structure is an elongated dome, cut by two north-south faults, which divides the field into three segments. The west segment is the highest structurally and contains most of the recoverable oil and gas. The center segment is less important and the east segment is of little value. Figs. 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 are depth contour maps on top of the five main producing sands in the field. These maps show the relative size of the five reservoirs and the

Jan 1, 1945

By D. K. Crampton

ON giving thought to the subject of this paper, my first reaction was that many and striking changes have come about as a direct result of the war. However, more careful analysis indicates that few, if any, of these changes can be wholly attributed to it. The actual situation is that all these changes were conceived and most of them at least partially executed in re- cent prewar years, it remaining the role of war to achieve results in a fraction of the time that might normally have been taken, lacking its driving impulse. The further discussion will therefore be with the premise that the individual changes have been greatly hastened rather than directly and primarily caused by any war conditions. Co-operation among copper alloy producers on production problems is agreed to be much worth while. The industry was too long noted for jealousy and secrecy as to equipment, methods, and even materials produced. Gradually, a more open and co-operative policy evolved but even just prior to the war the interchange of ideas was relatively cautious and limited. The need for a great increase in production in record time fostered a more co- operative attitude; exchange of ideas and experience concerning all phases of production increased tremendously to the benefit of the individual participants and thus the war effort, too. This more united effort has undoubtedly led to many specific improvements in process or equipment and these in turn to more rapid and economical operation than could have taken place on an each-for-himself basis.

Jan 1, 1944

By Frank Haas

THE public generally has-become aware that there is something wrong with the coal industry and a clamor has arisen for an explanation if not a remedy for this disorder. It is only reasonable that this Institute be looked to for a diagnosis to show the way for some other .agency to prepare the patient for prescription or operation. The subject is extensive, widely diversified, and beyond the efforts of an individual to cover completely; one of the objects of this paper is the initiating of a symposium on the non- technical factors essential to an understanding of the bituminous coal industry. The present condition of the coal industry cannot be described in a few words but, in effect, it resolves itself into a simple statement: The average coal operator is losing money notwithstanding a firm conviction on the part of the consumer that he pays too much for his coal. Without enumerating the many and varied. factors which contribute to this condition, this paper will be devoted to the interrelation of taxation and ownership of coal and its effect on finance

Jan 1, 1930

By Charles R. Keyes

I. INTRODUCTORY. IN the dry regions of the globe many silver-deposits display certain remarkable features which at the same time are so totally unlike anything met with among ore-bodies elsewhere, that they have long presented exceptional difficulties not only to a satisfactory explanation of their origin, but to economical milling. A most striking peculiarity of these ores is the haloid character of many of their bonanzas. To this fact more than to any other may be ascribed most of the unusual uncertainties of mining-operations in desert countries-the marvelous local richness of the ores under certain conditions and the often abrupt transition, to utter poverty; the inadequacy of ordinary prospecting customs and the constant devising of new exploratory methods; the unaccountable losses in smelting and the continual change in treatment-practice. For these anomalies certain climatic conditions seem to be chiefly responsible.

Jul 1, 1911

William Kent, New York City: I regret that I have not had the time since the Cincinnati meeting to make as complete a study of Mr. Salom's paper as I wished. I regard it as one of the most important papers that have been presented on this subject, and worthy of complete study. I started out, on the limited time I had, on a system of study which I would recommend to any one else who has leisure to complete the investigation. I took the original report presented at the Cincinnati meeting, and selected from it' such tests as had the analyses reported along with the physical tests, giving the amounts of carbon, phosphorus, manganese, etc., taking only those in which all these elements are given.

Jan 1, 1885

By E. O. Wagner, V. F. Parry

This paper summarizes investigations during 1949 on three pilot plants for drying low-rank fine cool by entrainment in hot gases. Detailed operating results on processing seven coals having moisture ranging from 24 to 62 pct, formulas and data for calculating performance of large units, and general conclusions on the problem of drying fine coal are presented.

Jan 1, 1950