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By J. N. Breston, R. V. Hughes

Conclusions drawn by previous research workers with reSPect to the relation between Pressure gradients and/or velocity and oil recovery obtained by laboratory water flood tests have been in disagreement probably due to variable procedures and unnatural conditions and materials. The Bradford Laboratory of the Pennsylvania Grade Crude Oil Association as part of its secondary recovery research program has conducted nineteen water floods on two long cores of widely differing characteristics in an attempt to clarify this relationship and make it an aid in predicting flooding pressures in the field. Unlike previous research procedures the present experiments were conducted with the aim of duplicating field conditions as closely as possible by using long unextracted consolidated cores, a live crude, and natural brines for both flooding and, connate water content. Also, the pressure gradients and flooding velocities were representative of field conditions where similar sands were being flooded. Eleven floods on one core and eight floods on the other core showed increased recoveries and lower residual oil saturation with increased flood pressure gradients and flood velocities. A marked decrease in recovery was obtained from both cores at very low flood velocities. This pressure versus recovery relationship is shown to hold up to the point of water breakthrough and also up to the 100 and 1 produced water to oil ratio point. INTRODUCTION The possibility of water flooding oil sands was suggested by Carl1 of the Pennsylvania Geological Survey in 1880. It is not known when the practice was tried intentionally for the first time, but its beneficial effects were noted in the annual production rate of the Bradford field as early as 1907. The practice was illegal in Pennsylvania until 1921. Early water floods in the Bradford field usually consisted of shooting or splitting the casing secretly to permit subsurface waters to enter the producing sands under hydrostatic head. As it was noted that the benefits of water flooding seemed to be proportional to the quantity of water dumped into the well many also began to utilize surface sources after the practice became legal. It was probably during the middle 20's before many producers realized that the pressurehead of the water upon the producing sand determined the rate and quantity of water that would enter the sand. Hence, rate and quantity of production appeared to be a direct function of input pressures. By 1927 a few producers had ventured the installation of pressure pumps in order to increase water-input rates and production through the combination of hydrostatic and hydraulic pressures. The adoption of pressure flooding and the "five-spot" drilling pattern in the Bradford field were essentially simultaneous. Water-input pressures in 1930 seldom exceeded 300 p.s.i. at the well head or 1100 p.s.i. at the sand face. Since that time, water-flood producers in the Bradford-Allegany fields have gone to higher and higher pressure until today 600 p.s.i. at the well heads is called a low pressure flood. Many high pressure floods now operate at 1300-1400 p.s.i. at the well head. The limiting and advisable pressure at the sand face has been pronounced as that pressure just under what is required to lift the overburden or to cause formation parting: According to this rule any water flood operation utilizing well-head pressures nearly equal in pounds per sq. in. to 1.1 times the average depth in feet to the top of the producing sand would be considered as a high-pressure flood. Despite the higher pressure trends in the Bradford-Allegany field operations and the results of early laboratory water flooding research, the desirability and benefits of high input pressures are still questioned by many operators, particularly in midwestern water flood operations. The present paper recounts a series of 19 laboratory water floods using two long, consolidated cores of widely differing characteristics saturated with live crude and flooded with oil field brines in an effort to simulate field conditions under • various pressure gradients and flooding velocities. For both cores, higher recoveries and lower residual oil saturations were obtained at higher pressure gradients and flood velocities. This relationship is shown to hold up to the water breakthrough point and also up to the 100 to 1 produced water to oil ratio point.

Jan 1, 1949

By R. V. Hughes, J. N. Breston

Conclusions drawn by previous research workers with reSPect to the relation between Pressure gradients and/or velocity and oil recovery obtained by laboratory water flood tests have been in disagreement probably due to variable procedures and unnatural conditions and materials. The Bradford Laboratory of the Pennsylvania Grade Crude Oil Association as part of its secondary recovery research program has conducted nineteen water floods on two long cores of widely differing characteristics in an attempt to clarify this relationship and make it an aid in predicting flooding pressures in the field. Unlike previous research procedures the present experiments were conducted with the aim of duplicating field conditions as closely as possible by using long unextracted consolidated cores, a live crude, and natural brines for both flooding and, connate water content. Also, the pressure gradients and flooding velocities were representative of field conditions where similar sands were being flooded. Eleven floods on one core and eight floods on the other core showed increased recoveries and lower residual oil saturation with increased flood pressure gradients and flood velocities. A marked decrease in recovery was obtained from both cores at very low flood velocities. This pressure versus recovery relationship is shown to hold up to the point of water breakthrough and also up to the 100 and 1 produced water to oil ratio point. INTRODUCTION The possibility of water flooding oil sands was suggested by Carl1 of the Pennsylvania Geological Survey in 1880. It is not known when the practice was tried intentionally for the first time, but its beneficial effects were noted in the annual production rate of the Bradford field as early as 1907. The practice was illegal in Pennsylvania until 1921. Early water floods in the Bradford field usually consisted of shooting or splitting the casing secretly to permit subsurface waters to enter the producing sands under hydrostatic head. As it was noted that the benefits of water flooding seemed to be proportional to the quantity of water dumped into the well many also began to utilize surface sources after the practice became legal. It was probably during the middle 20's before many producers realized that the pressurehead of the water upon the producing sand determined the rate and quantity of water that would enter the sand. Hence, rate and quantity of production appeared to be a direct function of input pressures. By 1927 a few producers had ventured the installation of pressure pumps in order to increase water-input rates and production through the combination of hydrostatic and hydraulic pressures. The adoption of pressure flooding and the "five-spot" drilling pattern in the Bradford field were essentially simultaneous. Water-input pressures in 1930 seldom exceeded 300 p.s.i. at the well head or 1100 p.s.i. at the sand face. Since that time, water-flood producers in the Bradford-Allegany fields have gone to higher and higher pressure until today 600 p.s.i. at the well heads is called a low pressure flood. Many high pressure floods now operate at 1300-1400 p.s.i. at the well head. The limiting and advisable pressure at the sand face has been pronounced as that pressure just under what is required to lift the overburden or to cause formation parting: According to this rule any water flood operation utilizing well-head pressures nearly equal in pounds per sq. in. to 1.1 times the average depth in feet to the top of the producing sand would be considered as a high-pressure flood. Despite the higher pressure trends in the Bradford-Allegany field operations and the results of early laboratory water flooding research, the desirability and benefits of high input pressures are still questioned by many operators, particularly in midwestern water flood operations. The present paper recounts a series of 19 laboratory water floods using two long, consolidated cores of widely differing characteristics saturated with live crude and flooded with oil field brines in an effort to simulate field conditions under • various pressure gradients and flooding velocities. For both cores, higher recoveries and lower residual oil saturations were obtained at higher pressure gradients and flood velocities. This relationship is shown to hold up to the water breakthrough point and also up to the 100 to 1 produced water to oil ratio point.

Jan 1, 1949

By Robert E. Green, Robert A. Swanson

Ultrasonic attenuation and stress were measured simultaneously as a function of strain for aluminum single crystals tested in compression. The propagation mode and polarization of the ultrasonic waves were chosen with reference to the theoretical analysis presented in Part I. Good experimental agreement was found with this theory and with earlier experimental work in tensile tests. Support is given to the contention that ultrasonic -attenuation measurements are much more sensitive to the early stages of plastic deformation than are conventional stress -strain measurements. Dislocation meclzanisms are suggested which are compatible with both the present and the earlier experimental observations. A brief historical introduction of previous work concerned with the study of dislocation motion by ultrasonic-attenuation measurements has been given in Part I. The purpose of the present experimental investigation was to make use of the theoretical considerations from Part I in order to gain further knowledge concerning dislocation motions during plastic deformation. Emphasis was placed on the choice of propagation modes and polarization of the waves, such that interactions between these waves and dislocation movement on a specific slip system could be investigated. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE Since the primary concern of this investigation was dislocation damping, other sources of damping were eliminated as much as possible. The test specimens were 0.5-in.-diam single crystals of 99.99+ pct pure aluminum grown from the melt by a modified Bridgman technique. Ultrasonic-attenuation measurements were made at a frequency of 10 megacycles per sec using a Style 56A001 Ultrasonic Attenuation Comparator manufactured by Sperry Products Inc. after a design by Chick, An- derson, and Truell.1 At this frequency the particle vibrations are essentially adiabatic and thermo-elastic damping should be absent. This frequency was selected since it was one of the frequencies used by Hikata et al.2 n conjunction with tensile tests on aluminum crystals, thus allowing direct comparison with this work. The use of quartz-crystal transducers insures that the amplitude of vibration is not sufficient to cause the break away of the dislocation loops from weak pinning points. The quartz-crystal transducers used all possessed a resonance frequency of 10 megacycles per sec and were thin circular discs 0.375 in. in diameter. X-cut crystals were used to generate the longitudinal waves and AC-cut crystals to generate the transverse waves. Aluminum was chosen as the basic material because it is a typical fcc metal whose deformation behavior is well-known and because the most recent work at the time the present research was initiated was that by Hikata et al. who used aluminum. The present tests were run in compression to see if such tests could be satisfactorily run in compression without being severely masked by grip effects.. A second reason was to compare the results in compression with those of the tension experiments of Hikata et at. Finally, shorter specimens could be run in compression with less over-all damping than in tension. All of the aluminum-crystal test specimens used were oriented for plastic deformation by single slip; i.e., they possessed the orientation having a maximum Schmid factor of 0.5. Because of the well-known time dependence 3 of plastic strain at constant stress, the test specimens were subjected to a quasi-static loading. Previous investigations4-' have indicated that attenuation after plastic deformation is also time-dependent, so any continuous loading of the specimen would show that changes in attenuation were also a function of strain rate. By loading the specimen to a given stress level and holding it constant until the recovery process was essentially complete, the time dependence was eliminated. The quartz transducer was permanently bonded to the aluminum crystal using Eastman 910 cement. Excess cement was removed from around the quartz with DMF (dimethyl formamide). Eastman 910 was found to be far superior for bonding, especially with regard to the shear-wave transducer, since it formed a solid bond which readily supports shear-wave propagation. The solid bond formed by the Eastman 910 cement also insured that the quartz

Jan 1, 1964

By H. J. Levinstein, H. J. Guggenheim, C. D. Capio

An optical incestigation of the phase transformations in RbFeF, has been conducted. Details of the ferromagwetic phase transition and the metamagnetic state are disczrssed. The three-dimensional magnetic domain structure existing in bulk crystals of RbFeF3 is described, as well as the effect of the magnitude and direction of the applied magnetic field on the domain struclure. The strong magnetoelastic interaction in RbFeF, is demonstrated. The results of the direct observation of the role of dislocation subboundaries and slip bands as nucleation sites and as pinning sites for magnetic domain walls are reported. THE perovskite compound RbFeF, has recently been shown to exhibit three magnetic states.''' Above 102°K it is paramagnetic, between 102" and 87°K it is antiferromagnetic. and below 87°K it is ferromagnetic (i.e., exhibiting remanence) with a modification of the magnetization occurring at 40°K. The changes in magnetic structure at 102o, 87°. and 40°K are accompanied by shear transformations to successively lower crystal symmetry classes.3 At 102°K a second-order phase transformation to a tetragonal crystal structure occurs. The c/o ratio increases with decreasing temperature to a value of 1.0034 at 87°K where the crystal undergoes another shear transformation to an ortho-rhombic crystal structure. The magnetic modification at 40 K is also accompanied by a shear transformation to a lower crystal symmetry. RbFeF3 is unique in that in the ferromagnetic state it is transparent in the bulk to visible light, has a low saturation magnetization, a large magnetic rotation. and has good optical properties.' All these features make it an ideal material for the investigation of magnetic domain structures in bulk crystals. In addition a dislocation etch has been developed which reveals the point of emergence of dislocations with the (100) surfaces of RbFeF3,5 making it possible to determine the dislocation arrays in the material. As a result domain wall dislocation interactions can be observed in the bulk crystal. In this paper we report on 1) the crystallography of the phase transformations in RbFeF3. 2) the domain configurations as a function of magnetic field and crystal orientation. 3) the interaction of dislocations and magnetic domain walls in RbFeF,. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE Since the temperature range of interest is below room temperature the dewar shown in Fig. 1 was employed. It was designed to fit on the stage of a Leitz panphot metallograph, and permitted examination of the sample at a magnification up to 150 times. The dewar consists of a double-walled glass cylinder bent into an L shape. The space between the walls is evacuated. The viewing wirldows were made of four optically flat quartz discs aligned parallel to each other and sealed to the sides of the concentric cylinders. The specimens were mounted in a holder attached to a flexible plastic shaft. Various holder designs were employed depending upon the type of observations to be made. For studies of the phase transformation between the antiferromagnetic and ferromagnetic state the holder shown in Fig. 2(d) was employed. This holder permitted accurate temperature control at 82" to 88°K by balancing the heat input from the carbon resistance heater against the heat loss to a heat sink immersed in liquid N2. Magnetic field studies were conducted by employing the holders shown in Figs. 2(a) and (b). The holder shown in Fig. 2(n) has a solenoid imbedded in it. such that the magnetic field direction is in the same direction as the incident light. The magnetic field provided by the holder in Fig. 2(b) is perpendicular to the incident light direction. The holder in Fig. 2(r) was employed when observations of the specimen were desired while an elastic bending stress was applied to the sample. The stress was applied to the sample by pulling a wire from outside of the dewar. The wire was attached to a lever pivoted on the holder. which caused the knife edge of the lever to push against the sample. The crystal growth and the sample preparation were described previously.' PHASE TRANSFORMATIONS The first phase transformation in this system is from the cubic perovskite structure to n tetragonal

Jan 1, 1970

By B. A. Joyce, R. W. Bicknell, R. J. Bennett, P. J. Etter

Epitaxial layers of silicon have been grown on single-crystal quartz and alumina by two types of chemical reaction the hydrogen reduction of trichlorosilane and b) the pyrolysis of silane. These reaction systems are described. The cqsfallography of the two systems, as determined by electron and X-ray diffraction, is discussed, and epitaxial mechanisms suggested. The electrical behavior is briefly considered, and the design and properties of field-evert devices fabricated in the epilaxial material are also discussed. RECENT work carried out in these laboratories" has shown that it is possible to obtain epitaxial deposits of silicon on single-crystal quartz and alumina. The purpose of this paper is to describe the method of preparation of these layers using both the hydrogen reduction of trichlorosilane and the pyroly-sis of silane, to compare the crystallographic behavior of films on the two substrates, and to present some initial results of the electrical behavior of silicon layers on alumina. The structural study has been carried out using electron and X-ray diffraction and electron microscopy. The electrical assessment has been made in terms of conductivity and mobility determinations by the van der pauw3 technique, and by measurements on metal-oxide-semiconductor assemblies. 1) FILM PREPARATION Both quartz and alumina substrates, approximately 1 sq cm in area and 0.4 mm thick. were prepared from slices cut parallel to within a few degrees of (11.0), (10.0), and (00.1), and polished mechanically down to about 0.3 p diamond grade. Chemical polishing of alumina slices, using phosphoric acid at elevated temperatures, has also been used; epitaxial silicon layers have been grown on these substrates, but the process is not entirely reliable, possibly because the large strain present in the Verneuil-grown alumina crystal affects the chemically prepared surface. The two reaction systems are fairly conventional and are described briefly below. a) Trichlorosilane-Hydrogen System. The apparatus is shown schematically in Fig. 1. The substrate was heated by induction, with a fused-quartz encapsulated graphite hemicylinder as susceptor. The procedure for carrying out a deposition was to heat the substrate to reaction temperature in a stream of

Jan 1, 1965

By F. B. Plummer, R. B. Newcome

The practice of introducing acid into oil wells to increase production of oil and gas has been in use since 1894, when it was first used in the Pennsylvania oil fields30.‡ It is only since 1928 that it has been used to any extent in the Mid-Continent18. The process has proved successful in increasing production, at least temporarily, in depleted oil fields where the producing formation is highly calcareous and where water drive is not too pronounced. In the Zwolle field in Louisiana, where the producing horizon is a chalk, increases of 100 per cent have been recorded25. In north-central Texas, where the oil is produced from the Marble Falls limestone, equally pronounced increases have resulted3. The production also in some fields yielding oil from quartz sand cemented with calcitc has been benefited. The evidence of actual increase in total recovery of oil, however, has been questioned by some engineers18. It has been pointed out that the results of the treatment of a well in a now district, where the process has never been tried out, can never be predicted with certainty, since other factors besides percentage of calcareous content of the oil sand play a large part in determining the success of the method. Numerous articles have been published on acid treatment and on the effects of acid on limestone1-35, yet very little has been written concerning experimental work on the actual effect of acid on capillary pores and larger oil-coated voids of oil sands. This is due partly to difficulties in duplicating field conditions in a laboratory and partly to the fact that the process has been carried out largely by contracting companies that have been unwilling to publish details of their results for fear of loss of business to competitors. The authors, using equipment developed to measure the radial permeability of oil-sand cores2', have developed a method of investigating the results of acid treatment which has enabled them to test numerous cores and to study in some detail the action of acid on the different types of rocks, particularly fine-grained rocks.

Jan 1, 1936

By F. B. Plummer, R. B. Newcome

The practice of introducing acid into oil wells to increase production of oil and gas has been in use since 1894, when it was first used in the Pennsylvania oil fields30.‡ It is only since 1928 that it has been used to any extent in the Mid-Continent18. The process has proved successful in increasing production, at least temporarily, in depleted oil fields where the producing formation is highly calcareous and where water drive is not too pronounced. In the Zwolle field in Louisiana, where the producing horizon is a chalk, increases of 100 per cent have been recorded25. In north-central Texas, where the oil is produced from the Marble Falls limestone, equally pronounced increases have resulted3. The production also in some fields yielding oil from quartz sand cemented with calcitc has been benefited. The evidence of actual increase in total recovery of oil, however, has been questioned by some engineers18. It has been pointed out that the results of the treatment of a well in a now district, where the process has never been tried out, can never be predicted with certainty, since other factors besides percentage of calcareous content of the oil sand play a large part in determining the success of the method. Numerous articles have been published on acid treatment and on the effects of acid on limestone1-35, yet very little has been written concerning experimental work on the actual effect of acid on capillary pores and larger oil-coated voids of oil sands. This is due partly to difficulties in duplicating field conditions in a laboratory and partly to the fact that the process has been carried out largely by contracting companies that have been unwilling to publish details of their results for fear of loss of business to competitors. The authors, using equipment developed to measure the radial permeability of oil-sand cores2', have developed a method of investigating the results of acid treatment which has enabled them to test numerous cores and to study in some detail the action of acid on the different types of rocks, particularly fine-grained rocks.

Jan 1, 1936

By Michael B. Bever, Barton Roessler

The effects of deformation by wire drawing at 78OK on initially ordered and initially disordered specimens of the alloy Cu3Au were investigated. The resistivity, stored energy, drawing force, and microhardness were measured as functions of strain; microstructural changes were observed. The results are interpreted in terms of the structural imperfections and the changes in atomic configuration resulting from deformation. A few experiments on the effects of room-temperature annealing after deformation at 78°K were made; they suggest vacancy-promoted ordering in disordered alloys. BARTON ROESSLER, Junior Member AIME, formerly Graduate Student and Alcoa Fellow, Department of Metallurgy, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Mass., is with Westinghouse Research Laboratories, Pittsburgh, Penn. MICHAEL B. BEVER, Member AIME, is Professor of Metallurgy, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Based in part on o thesis by B. ROESSLER submitted in October, 1959 to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Science. Manuscript submitted April 6, 1961. IMD AN investigation of the effects of deformation at room temperature on the alloy Cu3 Au was reported in a recent paper,' which included a review of the literature on the deformation of order-disorder alloys. In general, plastic deformation of ordered alloys reduces the degree of long-range order and causes corresponding changes in their properties. Deformation of disordered alloys changes their properties in a manner characteristic of solid solution alloys; these changes can in part be attributed to the destruction of short-range order. The effects of deformation on solid solution alloys are of two kinds: 1) generation of structural imperfections, which occurs as a result of deformation in any metallic system including pure metals, and 2) changes of atomic configuration, which are characteristic of solid solutions and particularly of order -disorder systems. These two types of effect are not independent of each other and the state of a deformed solid solution alloy is determined in a complex manner by the way in which the structural imperfections cause changes in atomic configuration both during and after deformation.

Jan 1, 1962

By John Furness Park

The mining district is located in the northeasterly part of Nevada, between the Jarbidge River on the west and the East Fork of the Jarbidge on the east. The northern boundary of the district is but a few miles south of the Idaho state line—the gold-bearing area extending from this point south, for 5 or 6 miles. • The Jarbidge Mountains, in which the ore deposits occur, range from 5000 to 11,000 ft. in elevation, the most important mines being situated about 7000 ft. or higher. The town of Jarbidge lies along the Jarbidge River and is reached by stage from Rogerson, Ida., the nearest railroad point. During the summer months, the camp may be entered from the south by way of Deeth, Nev., but no regular transportation facilities are available over this route. History The mineral deposits were not discovered until 1909, when D. A. Bourne, panning along the river bank, found gold in. the gravel at the mouth of a small stream flowing into the Jarbidge. He prospected in the vicinity of this stream, later known as Bourne Gulch, and shortly after located the North Star claims. During the following spring and summer (1910), the camp of Jarbidge grew from nothing to a town of 2000 people and the hills surrounding it were practically all taken up by mining claims. Most of the work done during the first year or two consisted of trenching and open-cut prospecting. Tunneling was started on a number of claims and many veins were uncovered. Mills were built and operated on a few properties, notably the Pavlak and the North Star. These ran only a few months, however, when they were closed down because of extraction and financial difficulties. A period of development followed in which the majority of the present producing mines were opened. The Elkoro Mines Co. acquired a number of claims in 1915 and started work on the present mill in 1917. Since that time other properties have been taken over until this company is by far the largest operator in the district. Only one other company is now actively engaged in mining, the Bluster Mining & Milling Co., which has

Jan 1, 1925

By K. V. Lindell

THE 70-mile serpentine belt of eastern Quebec, producing 70 pct of the world's chrysotile, has 11 operating mines, two of which are underground, eight are open-pit, and one is both open-pit and underground. The combined operation, the Jeffrey mine, of the Canadian Johns-Manville Co., Ltd. is the largest producer in the group. Haulage All four of the separate operations falling under transportation at the Johns-Manville Jeffery Mine at Asbestos, P. Q., is handled by the company owned Asbestos and Danville Railway. A variety of equipment is operated over the 25 miles standard gage railway. Included in the scope of transportation are: 1-Hauling mill rock to the mill. 2-Hauling stripping and waste rock to the waste dump. 3-Hauling mill tailings to the tailings dump. 4-Hauling supplies from, and finished products to Danville. Main line tracks are permanent, but those within the pit and on the dumps have to be relocated constantly to follow the mining face and dump edges. Tracks within rock areas in the mine are laid on steel ties and can be moved by a bulldozer. Standard mechanical track shifters move tracks in dirt areas in the mine and on the dumps. Train-movements, both within the mine and over the out-lying tracks are controlled by a dispatcher located at the southwest rim of the pit. Steam locomotives haul all stripping, waste rock, and ore from the mine to the gathering yard at the northwest rim of the pit. Normally, two trains per operating shovel are used, with adjustment for optimum loading. In the event of shovel loading on the bottom level or in good stripping, service may be increased to three or four trains per shovel. From the gathering yard a 100 ton diesel-electric locomotive hauls the mill rock to the mill slips, a distance of about three miles. Electric or steam locomotives haul the waste rock and stripping to the waste dump located about two and one-half miles from the mine. Stripping cars are sprayed with a chloride solution and "gravelled" to prevent wet stripping from freezing in the cars during the cold months. Cars pass under a shaking screen which distributes an even

Jan 1, 1952

By Frederic Carter

THE gold, silver, copper alloys have been the subject of several fairly complete investigations by Jänecke, Sterner-Rainer1 and others, and indeed it would seem as if almost too much labor had been expended on them when one thinks of the numerous other ternary alloys calling for more light; however, the combinations of the three metals are actually so widely used in jewelry that they merit perhaps the work done on them. There are a few properties of importance and interest not treated by the authors mentioned which the writer investigated some little time ago, and therefore he has ventured to put on record the results of some of his tests made at that time. He has chosen, as being the two series of most importance to the jeweler, only the 14 and 18-kt. golds, so the subject is by no means so inclusive as that previously treated. As stated, this paper is merely a record of tests made in a practical manner on two useful series of alloys, and is not at all a critical study of their properties. 14-KARAT ALLOYS These alloys are important because they are the most generally used in 14-kt. jewelry; by changing the proportions of silver and copper there are obtained all shades of color from the green of the alloy containing gold and silver but no copper, to the red of the alloy containing gold and copper but no silver. Many 14-kt. gold alloys are made with the addition of zinc to the three metals mentioned here; the added metal does not appreciably alter the color of the alloy nor has it, in general, much effect on the working properties; it may, however, prove useful as part of the zinc added may act as a deoxidizer and render the alloy free of gas. It is not a necessary addition because with proper precautions all the 14-kt. gold alloys containing only silver and copper in addition to the gold can be made free of gas and capable of being cold rolled without cracking. The alloys in which approximately equal quantities of silver and-copper

Jan 1, 1928

By Frederic E. Carter

THE gold, silver, copper alloys have been the subject of several fairly complete investigations by Jänecke, Sterner-Rainer1 and others, and indeed it would seem as if almost too much labor had been expended on them when one thinks of the numerous other ternary alloys calling for more light; however, the combinations of the three metals are actually so widely used in jewelry that they merit perhaps the work done on them. There are a few properties of importance and interest not treated by the authors mentioned which the writer investigated some little time ago, and therefore he has ventured to put on record the results of some of his tests made at that time. He has chosen, as being the two series of most importance to the jeweler, only the 14 and 18-kt. golds, so the subject is by no means so inclusive as that previously treated. As stated, this paper is merely a record of tests made in a practical manner on two useful series of alloys, and is not at all a critical study of their properties. 14-KARAT ALLOYS These alloys are important because they are the most generally used in 14-kt. jewelry; by changing the proportions of silver and copper there are obtained all shades of color from the green of the alloy containing gold and silver but no copper, to the red of the alloy containing gold and copper but no silver. Many 14-kt. gold alloys are made with the addition of zinc to the three metals mentioned here; the added metal does not appreciably alter the color of the alloy nor has it, in general, much effect on the working properties; it may, however, prove useful as part of the zinc added may act as a deoxidizer and render the alloy free of gas. It is not a necessary addition because with proper precautions all the 14-kt. gold alloys containing only silver and copper in addition to the gold can be made free of gas and capable of being cold rolled without cracking. The alloys in which approximately equal quantities of silver and copper

Jan 1, 1928

By Frank A. Hill

After a long struggle with an underground mine-fire and its accompanying evils, having experienced the discouragement of many retreats, the uncertain hope of varying advances, and the gratification of final success, I am tempted to give the members of the Institute some of the details of the fight. I do not write with the thought of treating a novel subject, but with the hope that some one as unfortunate as ourselves may be led by our experience to avoid our mistakes and to profit by our successes. The fire occurred on June 16, 1890. It was a calamity awful in its results, ringing the death-knell of thirty-one stalwart miners, bringing sorrow and desolation to many homes, and destroying in a few hours the work of years. While there have been a number of disasters in the history of American mining in which there was a greater loss of life and property, I know of none in which so simple a cause led to results so serious. A description of the mine, with the details of the accident, is necessary for a full understanding of the conditions existing at the time. The Hill-Farm-Parrish mine is in Dunbar township, Fayette county, Pa., about one mile from Dunbar station, on the Pennsylvania and Baltimore & Ohio railroads, about four miles south of Connellsville, nine miles northeast of Uniontown, and in the heart of what is celebrated as the Connellsville coke region. The mine is owned and operated by the Dunbar Furnace Company ; and all the coal produced is made into coke and used in the company's furnaces, one mile to the east. The mine is opened by two slopes, the HillFarm and Parrish, the latter known also as the Ferguson. The Hill-Farm slope is 2600 feet northeast of the Parrish. There are 150 ovens at the former and 70 at the latter slope. The Hill-Farm slope is 4100 feet in length, and the length of the Parrish at the time of the accident was 3700 feet. The average dip of the coal is about 8 degrees S of W. The workings of the two slopes are con-

Jan 1, 1893

By Milo W. Krejci

The plant and quarries of the Inland Portland Cement Co. are located at Metaline Palls, Wash., about 128 miles north of Spokane, on the Pend Oreille river, and within 10 miles of the Canadian border. The plant is one of a chain of cement plants controlled by the Lehigh Portland Cement Co., of Allentown, Pa. Work on this plant was commenced in June, 1910, and was completed in April, 1911, but on account of some delays in the construction of the power plant, the works were not put into operation until August, 1911. Since then it has been in continuous operation and has furnished the Inland Empire with a high grade of cement. Fig. 1 is a view and Fig. 2 is a plan of the works. Water Power Development.—The source of the water supply for the hydro-electric plant of the Inland Portland Cement Co. is Sullivan lake, a body of water approximately 5.5 miles long and' 0.5 mile wide, situated in the Kaniksu Forest Reserve. A wooden crib dam was installed so as to raise the elevation of the lake 25 ft., and the additional storage capacity was taken up by the diversion of Sullivan creek into the lake by means of a wooden flume, 0.25 mile long, 6 by 8 ft. in cross-section, and a ditch 1,200 ft. long. The water from the lake follows the natural water course to an intermediate storage reservoir, which was created by the construction of an earthen dam. This pond was used in connection with the saw mill which was installed at this point. Besides the earth dam, there was also built a crib, at the point shown in the sketch map, Fig. 3. This crib dam is 35 ft. high. From this point the excess water follows the natural course of Sullivan creek to the Pend Oreille river. The water is taken from this intermediage storage by means of a 6 by 8 ft. wooden flume approximately 13,000 ft. long. This flume is built up on the side hill, piling being driven most of the way on

Jan 1, 1914

By J. P. Lesley

The Pittsburgh coal-region, if we regard the greatness of its extent, the picturesque beauty of its scenery, the salubrity of its climate, its relative situation on the Continent, the fertility of its soil, its unrivalled mineral wealth, and its magnificent system of natural transportation, is, perhaps, the most valuable spot on the surface of the planet. Unlike the mythical Paradise inhabited by one man and one woman, it swarms with an abounding population, not living on the free gifts of nature without care and without toil, hut expending its energies in unremitting labor, reinforced by the most elaborate machinery, in the production of everything which mankinds needs or desires; and unlilte the Paradise of story from which flowed the four great rivers of the world in opposite directions, its own four rivers How from the surrounding world into it, to constitute by their union the great highway water-course which divides the Northern from the Southern States. These rivers are the Monongahela, coming from the south, the Yonghiogheny from the southeast, the Kiskiminetas from the east, and the Allegheny from the north. Uniting at the great city of pittsburgh, they constitnte the Ohio, which flows northwest and west, and then south and southwest, toward the Mississippi. The Monongahela has been made navigable by a system of dams and pools the Allegheny was navigable in its natural condition; the KisKiminetas was made navigable by a State canal which has been vacated ; and the Youghiogheny remains unnavigable. Railroads supplement the deficiencies of the rivers, follow their hanks, and share in the transportation for which the waters are not sufficient. Railroads and rivers concentrate at Pittsburgh; other railroads cross the highlands to the east and west; and branch roads ascend the side-valleys and ravines to the mines on the uplands. The whole region is a scene of life; towns and villages dot its surface in all directions ; hundreds of gangways open upon the sides of all the valleys, and deliver coal to trains of cars which move beneath them at water-level; furnaces and rolling-mills abound; hundreds of oil-wells furnish a flood of liquid fuel to pipe-lines

Jan 1, 1886

By R. E. Caffrey, S. K. Tung

This paper reports some of tile results obtained from the vapor-phase reaction of a volatile metal halide with a hydrogen and carbon dioxide mixture in an epitaxial-deposition chamber. Tile oxides deposited were silicon di oxide, aluminum oxide, mix-12tves of silicon di oxide and aluminum oxide, and titanium oxide. Tile deposited silicon di oxide was transparent and amorphous and had a density and index of refraction similar to that of thermally grown silica. The vote of etching was determined. The thickness uniformily of the oxide was found to he related to the aerodynamics of the system employed for deposition. A clear silicon di oxide layer was found to be dependent upon the quality of the surface prior- to aside deposition. The process parameters affecting the vale 0f deposition were studied. The deposited aluminum oxide was transparent, holy-cl-ysttrlliile, and possessed remarkable resistance to hydrofluoric acids. By measurements it has been shown that the deposited aluminum oxide is both insulating and continuous. ThE cleanness of an epitaxial silicon surface both immediately after growth and during device processing is thought to be one of the major factors contributing to the electrical properties of a final device. The advantage of protecting an epitaxial silicon wafer surface with an oxide grown immediately following epitaxial deposition is obvious. The successive growth of silicon and silicon diox- ide in epitaxial apparatus was studied by Steinmaier and loem.' They formed silicon dioxide films on a silicon substrate by adding water vapor to the silicon tetrachloride-hydrogen mixture in an epitaxial system. They also showed that, when a gaseous mixture of carbon dioxide and hydrogen is injected, water is formed only at elevated temperatures. Thus the reaction of water vapor and silicon tetra-: chloride will be limited to a relatively small reaction zone near the substrate. This paper reports some results of oxide films obtained from a vapor-phase reaction of a volatile metal halide with a hydrogen and carbon dioxide mixture in an epitaxial-deposition chamber. EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS The system employed for the oxide deposition is a modification of a vertical system used to produce high-resistivity silicon layers by the hydrogen reduction of silicon tetrachloride.' The modification shown schematically in Fig. 1 consisted of an additional carbon dioxide gas stream which entered the reaction chamber with a hydrogen stream saturated with metal halide vapor and a diluting hydrogen stream. Silicon dioxide layers made from a mixture of silicon tetrachloride, hydrogen, and carbon dioxide gases will be discussed first. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS 1) Factors Affecting the Rate of Oxidation. An epitaxial silicon layer was deposited by the hydrogen reduction of silicon tetrachloride on an n-type,

Jan 1, 1965

By Karl Fetters, John Chipman

The relationship between the composition of the slag and that of the underlying metal during the refining of a heat of liquid steel may best be studied in the light of the two broad physicochemical concepts of equilibrium and reaction rate. Actual steel-making processes, typified by basic open-hearth practice, involve such complexities of operating variables that it is impossible to distinguish with any degree of certainty between the general limiting conditions imposed by chemical equilibrium and the effects associated with rates of diffusion or of chemical reaction. Further advances in the physical chemistry of steelmaking will depend upon our ability to distinguish clearly between these two kinds of effects, and the experimental work that must be done falls naturally into two classifications. The first is the study of chemical equilibrium that cannot be carried out with assurance under operating conditions but must be done in the laboratory. The second is the -subject of rates of reaction and diffusion and the mechanism of the process as a whole, which can best be studied under operating conditions. The latter is not entirely independent of the former, since its interpretation often requires a knowledge of the equilibrium state. It is the purpose of this and of several papers that will follow to present the results of labora- tory investigations of equilibria involving liquid steel and slag. Open-hearth slag is a complex mixture containing at least eight major components and perhaps twice as many whose influence may be classified as probably minor. It is not surprising that progress toward a complete understanding of such a material at high temperatures has been slow. Attempts to apply the established principles of physical chemistry to the behavior of the individual components of this mixture have been beset by an almost complete lack of data on its chemical properties in the liquid state. This has necessitated the adoption of various methods of approximation based upon such assumptions as, for example, that for a given component the ratio of its mol fraction in the slag to that in the metal is a constant, or that the molecular composition of the liquid slag is the same as its crystalline constitution after solidification. From the thermo-dynamic viewpoint, such assumptions are merely useful dodges, which enable one to hazard a guess as to the magnitude of the more fundamental quantities, the chemical potentials and activities of the components of slag. The problem of determining the activity of each substance in an eight-component svstem seems too complex to be undertaken without the aid of generalizations derived from experimental data on similar systems containing a smaller number of components. Accordingly, it was planned in the present investigation to study the equilibrium of molten iron with the simplest

Jan 1, 1941

By Robert E. Cuthbertson

IT is the purpose of this paper to describe in detail the laboratory development and mill application of an unusual combination of flotation reagents employed in the concentrator of the Climax Molybdenum Co., on the Continental Divide, near Leadville, Lake County, Colorado. This development originated in an ore-dressing research laboratory maintained by Climax at the experimental plant of the Colorado School of Mines, which is staffed by men directly employed by the Climax Molybdenum Co. Mill-scale testing of laboratory developments was supervised by a representative from the testing laboratory, working in close cooperation with the operating staff at the mill. General milling practice at Climax is ably described in a paper by E. J. Duggan,1 mill superintendent. Other aspects of the Climax project have been described in papers by W. J. Coulter,2 by Butler, Vanderwilt and Henderson3 by Allen Kissock,4 and by Leo H. Glanville.5 Consequently, this paper will be confined to the metallurgical aspects of recent reagent developments, avoiding, as much as possible, repetition of material covered in these earlier publications. BRIEF HISTORY OF REAGENT PRACTICE AT CLIMAX Prior to the year 1937, the only reagents employed at Climax for froth production and collecting action in the flotation of molybdenite were steam-distilled or destructively distilled pine oils. The only exceptions to this practice were brief periods of mill testing, when reagents of various types were tried on an experimental basis. None of these experimental runs was sufficiently encouraging to justify its continuation as regular practice. Sodium, cyanide has been employed since the very early days of milling at Climax as an inhibiting agent for control of pyrite and chalcopyrite. Alkaline reagents such as lime or soda ash have been used in recent years to minimize the detrimental effect of iron salts on flotation of molybdenite. The presence of these harmful salts is attributed to the decomposition of fine metallics abraded from liners and balls in the first stage of regrinding rougher concentrate. Flint pebbles are used in subsequent regrinding, since alkaline reagents are not entirely adequate to offset the inhibiting effect of iron salts as the grind becomes progressively finer and the grade of concentrate progressively higher. Climax metallurgists were familiar at an early date with the use of petroleum products such as kerosene and gas oil as promoters of flotation of molybdenite. Charles C. Oliver6 discussed the use of pine oil and kerosene as early as 1920, in connection with the milling practice at Dominion Molybdenite Co., Quebec. Never theless, the early attempts to apply this knowledge in the Climax concentrator were complete failures. In the light of recent experience, it may seem strange that the early mill tests with petroleum

Jan 1, 1944

By Karl Fetters, John Chipman

The relationship between the composition of the slag and that of the underlying metal during the refining of a heat of liquid steel may best be studied in the light of the two broad physicochemical concepts of equilibrium and reaction rate. Actual steel-making processes, typified by basic open-hearth practice, involve such complexities of operating variables that it is impossible to distinguish with any degree of certainty between the general limiting conditions imposed by chemical equilibrium and the effects associated with rates of diffusion or of chemical reaction. Further advances in the physical chemistry of steelmaking will depend upon our ability to distinguish clearly between these two kinds of effects, and the experimental work that must be done falls naturally into two classifications. The first is the study of chemical equilibrium that cannot be carried out with assurance under operating conditions but must be done in the laboratory. The second is the -subject of rates of reaction and diffusion and the mechanism of the process as a whole, which can best be studied under operating conditions. The latter is not entirely independent of the former, since its interpretation often requires a knowledge of the equilibrium state. It is the purpose of this and of several papers that will follow to present the results of labora- tory investigations of equilibria involving liquid steel and slag. Open-hearth slag is a complex mixture containing at least eight major components and perhaps twice as many whose influence may be classified as probably minor. It is not surprising that progress toward a complete understanding of such a material at high temperatures has been slow. Attempts to apply the established principles of physical chemistry to the behavior of the individual components of this mixture have been beset by an almost complete lack of data on its chemical properties in the liquid state. This has necessitated the adoption of various methods of approximation based upon such assumptions as, for example, that for a given component the ratio of its mol fraction in the slag to that in the metal is a constant, or that the molecular composition of the liquid slag is the same as its crystalline constitution after solidification. From the thermo-dynamic viewpoint, such assumptions are merely useful dodges, which enable one to hazard a guess as to the magnitude of the more fundamental quantities, the chemical potentials and activities of the components of slag. The problem of determining the activity of each substance in an eight-component svstem seems too complex to be undertaken without the aid of generalizations derived from experimental data on similar systems containing a smaller number of components. Accordingly, it was planned in the present investigation to study the equilibrium of molten iron with the simplest

Jan 1, 1941

By Robert E. Cuthbertson

It is the purpose of this paper to describe in detail the laboratory development and mill application of an unusual combination of flotation reagents employed in the concentrator of the Climax Molybdenum Co., on the Continental Divide, near Leadville, Lake County, Colorado. This development originated in an ore-dressing research laboratory maintained by Climax at the experimental plant of the Colorado School of Mines, which is staffed by men directly employed by the Climax Molybdenum Co. Mill-scale testing of laboratory developments was supervised by a representative from the testing laboratory, working in close cooperation with the operating staff at the mill. General milling practice at Climax is ably described in a paper by E. J. Duggan,1 mill superintendent. Other aspects of the Climax project have been described in papers by W. J. Coulter,2 by Butler, Vanderwilt and Henderson,= by Allen Kissock,4 and by Leo H. Glanville.5 Consequently, this paper will be corfined to the metallurgical aspects of recent reagent developments, avoiding, as much as possible, repetition of material covered in these earlier publications. Brief History of Reagent Practice at Climax Prior to the year 1937, the only reagents employed at Climax for froth production and collecting action in the flotation of molybdenite were steam-distilled or destructively distilled pine oils. The only exceptions to this practice were brief periods of mill testing, when reagents of various types were tried on an experimental basis. None of these experimental runs was sufficiently encouraging to justify its continuation as regular practice. Sodium cyanide has been employed since the very early days of milling at Climax as an inhibiting agent for control of pyrite and chalcopyrite. Alkaline reagents such as lime or soda ash have been used in recent years to minimize the detrimental effect of iron salts on flotation of molybdenite. The presence of these harmful salts is attributed to the decomposition of fine metallics abraded from liners and balls in the first stage of regrinding rougher concentrate. Flint pebbles are used in subsequent regrinding, since alkaline reagents are not entirely adequate to offset the inhibiting effect of iron salts as the grind becomes progressively finer and the grade of concentrate progressively higher. Climax metallurgists were familiar at an early date with the use of petroleum products such as kerosene and gas oil as promoters of flotation of molybdenite. Charles C. Oliver6 discussed the use of pine oil and kerosene as early as 19-20, in connection with the milling practice at Dominion Molybdenite Co., Quebec. Nevertheless, the early attempts to apply this knowledge in the Climax concentrator were complete failures. In the light of recent experience, it may seem strange that the early mill tests with petroleum

Jan 1, 1947