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By Robert S. Hedin, David M. Hyman

Acid mine drainage (AMD) is a common water pollution problem on active and abandoned coal mine sites in the eastern United States. AMD forms when surface mining brings unweathered pyrite-containing rocks to the surface or when deep mining allows oxygen to contact buried pyritic strata. In the absence of neutralizing compounds, the drainage that results can be extremely acidic and contaminated with dissolved iron, manganese, and sulfate. Drainages with pH < 3.0 and concentrations of sulfate greater than 1,000 mg/L, iron greater than 50 mg/L, and manganese greater than 10 mg/L are common. Where water flows through alkaline materials (such as limestone) before surfacing, the drainage is less acidic and occasionally circumneutral, but it can still contain high concentrations of sulfate and metals. Current water quality standards in the United States require that mine discharges have a pH between 6 and 9, total iron concentration less than 3.0 mg/L, and manganese less than 2.0 mg/L. At thousands of active and inactive mine sites, drainage does not meet these standards and is being treated before discharge by the mining company. At thousands of other sites, which were abandoned prior to the enactment of water pollution laws or were operated by companies that have gone bankrupt, untreated AMD is polluting receiving water systems. The standard mine drainage treatment system involves the addition of a1 kal ine chemicals to the water, which raises the pH and cause metals to precipitate in a settling pond. These systems are expensive, often costing tens or hundreds of thousands of dollars per year for chemicals, operation, maintenance, and disposal of the metal- laden sludge. Because the drainage on many sites will likely be contaminated for decades, there is financial incentive to find alternative water treatment systems. In the last five years, many mining companies and engineering firms have experimented with the construction of wetland treatment systems. Very few of the several hundred wetland systems that have been built are performing well enough to justify total abandonment of chemical treatment. Nonetheless, systems continue to be built because the mining companies have found that wetlands can reduce their AMD treatment costs. It is also their hope that further research and development will eventually result in systems that will completely rep1 ace chemical treatment and offer long term performance at minimal cost. The Bureau of Mines has been actively involved, from a research perspective, with this approach to AMD treatment since its inception. In this paper, the status of constructed wetland technology is discussed with respect to the construction and performance of systems, chemical and biological processes that affect AMD chemistry within constructed wetlands, and the future of this technology as perceived by the Bureau of Mines. ORIGINAL OBSERVATIONS The constructed wetland concept has its roots in observations of natural Sphaqnum peat wetlands that received acid mine drainage and, instead of being adversely affected, appeared to cause an amelioration of the polluted water (Huntsman et al. 1978; Wieder and Lang 1982). These observations instigated the idea that wet1 and systems might be used for the intentional treatment of mine drainage. Because the discharge of AMD into a natural wetland is prohibited in the U.S. by several laws, it has been necessary to construct wetlands which act solely as water treatment systems. Initially, most wetland research and construction efforts mimicked the original observations by utilizing Sphaqnum moss and peat. Despite promising laboratory results (Kleinmann et al. 1983; Tarleton et al. 1984; Burris et al. 1984; Gerber et al. 1985), virtually all field tests of Sphasnum-dominated constructed wetlands failed to provide sufficient water treatment for more than several months. Sphasnum proved quite sensitive to the stresses associated with transplanting, abrupt changes in water chemistry, excessive or insufficient water depth, and

Jan 1, 1989

The deformation, failure, and filling characteristics of a caving roof in the initial and normal mining stages of a pitching oblique longwall mining area are analyzed using large-scale threedimensional physical-similitude experiments and numerical calculations to study the characteristics of roof fracture and migration in a steeply dipping seam. The results show that the roof fracture development has evident sequential and spatial characteristics. Among them, immediate roof breaking in different parts of the mining area shows difference in time and space. The failure sequence of the immediate roof in different areas changes with the mining; unique regional stability evolution characteristics are observed in the suspended immediate roof simultaneously, resulting in its significant regional stability on the goaf filling.

Jan 7, 2020

By Steven W. Hunt, Steven B. Fradkin, Roger J. Maurer

During the 1980s and 1990s, twenty deep shafts were constructed in Milwaukee to depths from 85 to 91 m (280 to 300 feet) through soil and weak rock thicknesses ranging from 37 to 69 m (122 to 227 ft). Adjacent compressible soils, settlement sensitive structures and high groundwater levels required that shafts be constructed without dewatering. Contractors attempted several methods of ground support and groundwater cutoff. Significant problems developed during construction of 11 of the 20shafts. One shaft collapsed; groundwater blow-ins occurred at five of the shafts; and seepage caused unfrozen windows at three of the freezewalls. Ultimately, combinations of grouting and ground freezing were utilized to complete all of the shafts into bedrock. This paper discusses the main design and construction challenges experienced and the lessons learned.

Jan 1, 2003

By S. Nickson, M. Grenon

Oriented borehole data provide the means to characterize a rock mass. In this paper, the geomechanical caving potential of a hard rock mine project is investigated. In particular, the influence of random joints to the resulting block size distributions is addressed. The implications of this approach in preliminary investigations on the choice of mining methods are discussed with reference to one site.

Jan 1, 2003

By Anshumali Gangwar

This paper outlines the chance constrained binary integer program developed by the author in his doctoral dissertation at Columbia University, New York, 1973. The optimum planning of a mining program involves the determination of a production schedule which maximizes the net present value of the mining property. The actual mining process has an inherent stochastic and discrete nature. In particular, the demand for the mined product and the grade of the mineralized material in the ore are the two most important stochastic mining variables. The decision to mine or not to mine any block of a mining property is a binary integer variable. This paper outlines the formulation of pit production scheduling problem as a chance constrained binary integer program. The deterministic equivalents of these chance constraints are nonlinear in binary variables which have subsequently been linearized. The planned objective is to meet with a stipulated high degree of reliability, all the random demands as they materialize with a random supply of the commodity being marketed as determined by the eventuating random grade values of the exposed ore blocks and the mining system&apos;s production constraints such that the discounted total production costs over the entire planning horizon are minimized or the profits maximized. The emerging surface of the mine in each scheduling period is determined by the values taken by the binary decision variable associated with each block of material in each scheduling period.

Jan 1, 1982

By Ted D. Johnson

INTRODUCTION The tailing dam is part of the SOHIO L-Bar Uranium Mine and Mill located about 70.8 kilometers (44 miles) west of Albuquerque in northwestern New Mexico. The dam location is shown on Figure 1. The tailing dam is one of the last upstream method dams permitted in the industry. Design and construction aspects of the project, as well as operation and maintenance considerations, are reviewed herein. Since initial construction, SOHIO Western Mining Company and Woodward-Clyde Consultants have developed several modifications and improvements in the dam&apos;s operating and monitoring procedures. This work has been done in coordination with the New Mexico State Engineer&apos;s Office and in accordance with recommendations in a report done for the Corps of Engineer&apos;s Phase I Dam Inspection Report. Modifications and improvements described should be of particular interest to owners and operators of other tailing dams utilizing the upstream method of deposition. The tailing facility was designed for a 10-year life to provide an ultimate storage capacity of 6 1/2 billion kilograms (7 1/2 million short tons) in an area of about 180 acres. A plan view of the tailing dam is shown on Figure 2. The tailing consists of approximately 75% sand size material and 25% fines (material passing the No. 200 sieve). The tailing dam includes a small earth starter dam with raises of the dam accomplished using tailing deposited by upstream method techniques. The starter dam is a homogeneous embankment about 610 meters (2000 feet) long, a maximum height of 12 meters (40 feet) and 2 1/2:1 (horizontal to vertical) upstream and downstream slopes. The starter dam contains an internal drainage system which includes a near vertical chimney drain connected to horizontal finger drains. A typical section through the maximum height of the starter dam is shown on Figure 3. A small confining dam, approximately 1.6 meters (5 feet) high, is constructed beyond the limits

Jan 1, 1980

By S. D. Thompson

Several discrete-event simulation models have been developed for designing the conveying system capacities of underground coal mines. Most of these models require the use of a step function approach to mimic the loading process at each conveyor loading point. Over the years, practitioners have generally employed one of three versions of the step function approach. An important issue is how these three versions compare to each; other in terms of simulated capacity requirements for belt conveyors. Another issue is how they compare to the peak capacity design. This paper addresses these issues by statistically and quantitatively comparing their simulation results. The consequences and problems associated with using each version are also discussed and summarized.

Jan 1, 1997

By James A. Barclay

Results of investigations over approximately the last 10 years by the Bureau of Mines and others on technology for recovering cell-grade alumina from domestic nonbauxitic resources such as clay, anorthosite, alunite, dawsonitic oil shale, coal ash, and coal shale are reviewed. It is concluded that, although many innovative techniques have evolved from this effort and have been shown to be technically feasible, energy and economic considerations will prevent any of the processes from competing with the Bayer process under normal conditions. Based on the Bureau&apos;s experience, some variation of clay-HCI leaching, HC1 gas sparging crystallization has the greatest potential as an alternative to the Bayer-bauxite process.

Jan 1, 1984

By K. Kavouridis

Coal is broadly recognized as sure, competitive, diversified, not vulnerable and predictable in price energy resource. In power generation coal is playing a dominant role in the EU-27 with 25% of installed capacity and almost one third of the power generation. The role played by the domestic resources and especially by coal are increasingly becoming the focus of the EU energy strategy. There is a strong pressure for the decarbonization of the energy mix. The Emission Trading system (ETs) can have an impact on the shift to lower carbon-intensity fuels. The impact of ETs on coal can be important, because it is very short sighted and only defines the period up to 2008-2012. The ETs CO2 regime must ensure that investment in coal-fired plants in the long term are supported. EU Research Institutes and Coal Industry identified an important CO2 reduction potential by improving the efficiency of the conversion of solid fuels into electricity. Highly efficient clean coal technologies can contribute to reasonable costs and challenge the issue of climate change. It must be pointed out that the EU Energy policy should now concentrate on the necessity to effectively support demonstration projects and to create the legal framework for the integrated approach of efficiency enhancement and CCS. It is not a right approach to implement CCS before the technology is demonstrated and before it is clear that it will be commercially viable.

Jan 1, 2007

By David P. Keller, George Podolsky

Iron oxides are unique in that they are the only significant colored mineral found in a natural state suitable for use as a pigment after being pulverized to pigmentary size. The world production of iron oxide pigments is estimated by the authors to be between 350 and 400 kt. The fact that highly colored natural deposits of iron ore are found throughout the world accounts for its use in prehistoric man&apos;s artistic cave paintings. These early artists did not realize that they had established man&apos;s first paint test which now has some 20,000 years of exposure. In addition to abundance, iron oxides (about 7% of the earth&apos;s crust) have the advantage of low cost, permanency, and are non- toxic. Through the centuries, succeeding civilizations have utilized iron oxides as a major source for decoration and protection when these properties were desired. In the last century the chemical industry has improved on nature by developing a complete range of synthetic iron oxide pigments which surpass the pigments produced from natural iron ores in uniformity, color quality, and chemical purity. In the United States, the combined production of natural and synthetic iron oxides produced sales of over $97 million in 1980 (Spimad, Jr., 1980), increasing to $138 million by 1990 (Templeton, 1990) NOMENCLATURE With the increasing importance of the synthetic iron oxides it is necessary to make a distinction between the natural or mineral pigments and the synthetic pigments. Natural pigments are those products that are derived from selected ores and should not be confused with iron ores mined for steel production. Iron ores that are mined for steel must be capable of being mined and reduced to iron on a competitive commercial basis. These ores are selected on the basis of iron content and processing economics. It is therefore unusual when iron ores for steel production are suitable for use as mineral pigments. Natural pigment ore sources are selected for their special physical-chemical properties and are able to command a premium price over iron ores used for steel manufacturing. Synthetic pigments, and in this instance iron oxides, are those pigments produced from basic chemicals. Through chemical synthesis pigmentary particles are produced as opposed to the use of comminution, the major procedure common to all natural iron oxide pigments.

Jan 1, 1994

By S. A. Tims

INTRODUCTION The Falconbridge mine ore body extends about 1.6 km (1 mile) in length and the deepest developed ore is on the 6050 level below surface. The ore zone varies in width from a few inches to over 30 m (100 ft) and the average width is 4.9 m (16 ft). Access levels are driven in the ore at 53.3-m (175-ft) intervals. The principal method of mining is overhand longitudinal cut-¬and-fill. Prior to 1962 timber square-set stoping as a secondary extraction method was used for about 15% of the total production. Undercut-and-fill was intro¬duced at Falconbridge in 1962 as a potential replace¬ment for the square-set method in heavy ground. The undercut-and-fill method was developed by Inco in the 1950s, its principal application being to transverse pillar mining. Falconbridge made modifications to this method. A feature of the mine is the No. 1 flat fault which dips 0.79 rad (45°) towards the northeast. The main characteristic of the fault is the presence of large swells of ore directly under the plane of the fault. The ground under the fault area is highly fractured and associated with massive sulfides. In the past, the ore under the fault was recovered, with difficulty, by either tight cut¬and-fill or square-set stoping. In the 1970s these meth¬ods were supplanted to a large degree by the under-cut-¬and-fill method. An advantage of the current undercut-and-fill method which uses cemented fill compared to the cut-and-fill and square-set methods is the reduction of dilution due to better control of the walls. At Falconbridge mine, it is estimated that the grade of ore produced by undercut¬and-fill is improved by approximately 10% over other methods. Where undercut-and-fill is used in very weak ground, a much greater improvement in grade can be expected. Table I shows mining production for 1974. The undercut-and-fill method was first used at Falconbridge during 1962. The first longitudinal stope was prepared for undercutting by laying down laminated beams the length of the stope and installing a lagging mat floor on top of the beams. Unconsolidated tailings fill was poured on top of the mat floor. As the cut ad¬vanced under the floor, heavy posts were placed under the laminated beams at 1.8-m (6-ft) intervals. During 1966, a radical change was made to the method when tailings fill, consolidated with portland cement, replaced the unconsolidated fill. This development eliminated the laminated beams and heavy mat floor and greatly im¬proved the stability of the stope. This system, with minor variations, is currently used at Falconbridge mine. APPLICATION The undercut-and-fill method is used to mine in¬competent ground, sills or floor pillars under mined-out levels, or a block of ore isolated between levels. It is occasionally used to advantage in sequencing produc¬tion from various mining blocks. This is done by mining a block of ore cut-and-fill method and at the same time mining the ore block directly underneath by the under¬cut-and-fill method. The undercut-and-fill mill holes at Falconbridge are either boreholes, stripped timbered raises, or steel mill holes. Boreholes and rock raises tend to slough in heavy and broken ground which increases dilution when sloughing exceeds the ore width outline and also in¬creases the difficulty of moving down to start the new cut. For example, in one installation, a 1.2-m (4-ft) diam borehole sloughed to a size of 3.7 x 5.5 m (12 x 18 ft). The undercut-and-fill method usually requires a mill hole extending from the level below the ore to the top horizon of the ore block. The customary methods of providing a mill hole are: 1) A borehole is driven from level to level through the ore block and a chute installed on the bottom level (Fig. 1). 2) An existing raise is used as a mill hole. If the raise is timbered, a steel mill hole is installed inside the timber and tailings fill poured around the steel mill hole (Fig. 1). 3) An existing steel mill hole, situated at one end of a mined-out stope, is used as the mill hole for an ad¬jacent undercut-and-fill ore block. The mill hole posi¬tion is determined when planning the mining sequence of the first stope (Fig. 2).

Jan 1, 1982

By Wayne W. Murdy

Since 1993, Newmont Mining has been growing through the development &apos;q of three major foreign mining operations with a fourth under construction. The first project, Yanacocha in Peru, began operating in October 1993. This occurred at a time when political and business risk in that country was considered high. In 1995, Newmont began operating the Muruntau joint venture in Uzbekistan. It is the first mining project of its kind in the Confederation of Independent States (CIS). In early 1996, Newmont started operating the Minahasa Mine in Indonesia. In early 1997, Newmont began construction of a $1.9-billion project in Indonesia. The company is also completing a feasibility study with its partner for the development of a gold operation in Mexico. All of these projects have been considered "risky" by most standards. Newmont has been successful in all of them through risk mitigation programs. These programs include using strong and successful in-country partners, concentrating on developing a strong national workforce with minimal expatriate employees, using World Bank, European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD) and International Finance Corp. (IFC) financing and building and maintaining strong ties with host governments.

Jan 1, 1997

By A. Casuge, D. Lee, J. A. Finch, C. C. Sui

The adsorption of copper and lead und their subsequent xanthate uptake were compared at pH 3.0, 6.0 and 9.2 on both fresh and oxidized sphalerite. The extent of adsorption and the rate of adsorption were strongly dependent on pH, with the highest adsorption of Cu and Pb being at pH 9.2. In the presence of both Cu and Pb, Cu adsorption was enhanced and Pb adsorption was suppressed. The adsorption kinetics of Cu and Pb were characterized by two- and three-stage adsorption processes, respectively. The exchange ratio of Cu to Zn was about one and that of Ph to Zn was greater than one and varied with pH. The uptake of xarlthate on "activated" sphalerite was dependent on pH. The rnaximum uptake was found to be at pH 6.0 for Cu-activated sphalerite artd at pH 9.2 for Pb-activated sphalerite. A measure of "activation strength" based on inetal ion adsorption and xanthate uptake was introduced. The activation strength of Cu to Pb was about one at acidic pH, but it was higher at neutral (pH -6) and alkaline (pH -3) conditions. The oxidation of sphalerite decreased Pb and, especially, Cu adsorption and decreased xanthate uptake.

Jan 1, 2000

By R. Fedel-Moen, R. W. L. Kimber, B. D. Williams, S. R. Ragusa

The use o f cyanide to extract gold from ores is widespread. In the process of extracting gold, cyanide may form metal cyanide complexes with a variety of other metals present in the ore. This study was carried out to investigate the biodegradation of the Cu(I)-cyanide complex and tetracyanonickelate under varying pH and nutrient additions. Detailed studies using shake flask cultures and bioreactors showed that naturally occurring bacteria residing on gold-leach-pad ore uti¬lized the Cu(I)-cyanide complex (CuCN) and tetracyano-nickelate, Na2(NiCN4), as carbon and/or nitrogen sources. Ammonium-nitrogen (NH4+-N) and/or cyanate (CNO-) accumulated in solution as the metal cyanide complexes were degraded. The accumulation of cyanate as a product is a concern due to its toxicity. Degradation rates were increased if a growth substrate (peptone, 0.1%) was added to the medium or if bioreactors were primed with peptone before addition of the metal-cyanide complex. Tetracyanonickelate was degraded at pH 8 without added peptone, but it was not degraded at pH 10. The addition of peptone was required for degradation of the Cu(I)-cyanide complex at pH 8 and pH 10. At pH 8, the addition of peptone resulted in the accumulation of cyanate, whereas, at pH 10, cyanate was not detected in the cultures. Biodegradation of metal-cyanide complexes was faster (approximately 1.5 to ten times faster) in bioreactors than in shake flask cultures. The addition of peptone was not required for degradation of metal-cyanide complexes in bioreactors. However, priming the bioreaetor with peptone resulted in higher metal-cyanide degradation rates over multiple cycles.

Jan 1, 2000

By D. B. Apel

Rock mechanics software plays an important role during the design process of modern underground mines by allowing for verification of the stability of the planned excavations. The paper describes the methodology used to plan and locate the permanent underground openings at McArthur River Mine with the assistance of numerical modeling software.

Jan 1, 2004

By Robert Dimock

The successful management of large dispersed mineral operations is dependent upon accurate and timely decision making. The plant locations providing the data to support the decision making process are generally separated by distances which elongate the time required to accumulate the data at a central focus. The need exists to examine operational data in context with total mining operations, and in relation to target projections and historical trends. The use of microcomputers for local information tasks is an established capability. Grouping microcomputers into local-area networks is rapidly becoming established. Interconnecting multiple local-area networks to provide a free flowing stream of information between all operational locations of a mining enterprise is possible with use of some emerging technologies. The benefit of the potential interconnections and rapid transfer of information can readily be seen from a production reporting perspective. Numerous other advantages exist&apos; by providing routing to enable a workgroup to be established between separated work functions.

Jan 1, 1989

By G. J. J. Aleva, A. H. Hilversum

The northern spur of the Bakhuis Mountains contains bauxite deposits on a dissected planation level, a region formerly indicated as the Adampada-Kabalebo area. Iron-rich laterites are ubiquitous on all more or less flat and horizontal to moderately sloping interfluves and planation levels. The known aluminous laterites and bauxites are restricted to those laterites that have relatively leucocratic and silica-poor parent rocks. The whole area is underlain by high-metamorphic Precambrian. In the northern half of the Guiana Shield at least four Cainozoic planation levels can be distinguished. The bauxite and aluminous laterite deposits are related to the oldest, Early Tertiary level. These deposits, occupying the highest positions in the present day landscape, show the destructive influence of post-laterite weathering, erosion and denud- ation; they are erosion remnants and as such are of irregular thickness, grade and shape. Consequently, exact mineable tonnages can only be determined after intensive and detailed sampling and evaluation, taking into account the latest technical and economic parameters. The bauxite potential of the region is negatively influ- enced by the complicated uplift history of the Bakhuis horst, and positively by the presence of suitable parent rock and possibly more than one phase of bauxitization.

Jan 1, 1984

By B. Waquet

The genesis of a hydrothermal subsea mound, by chimney debris heaping and mineralizing fluid circulating upward, induces a vertical maturation gradient. Connected porosity is easy to measure and, after mineralogical evidence, can be use as a maturation index. Thus, to understand how a rock property evaluates with maturation, it is possible to plot it against connected porosity. Results are that uniaxial compressive strength, Young&apos;s modulus, and in a lesser certitude tensile strength, abrasivity and hardness, increase very weakly with maturation until a maturation threshold (equivalent to a connected porosity equal to 0.2), and rocket to much higher values after it.

Jan 1, 2011

By Rodrigo Jerez

The mining business in general, and coal mining in particular, is exposed to frequent and significant swings in the business cycle. Marginal coal production enters the market place in a nearly perfect competition. It must be priced aggressively if market share is to be gained. The minimum price acceptable from the standpoint of the producer is reached at the point where total variable cost are recovered. Competition occurs as companies move to reduce their variable costs in an effort to cover some portion of their fixed costs at reduced market prices. Production planning and scheduling plays a critical role in reducing costs. Multiple scenarios based on changing market conditions require that competing firms have tools available to evaluate the economic impact of transportation, blending, and processing options. In certain applications, significant cost savings can occur as a result of blending or altering preparation levels. Linear programming provides a tool with which to evaluate options and acts as a like between the mine plan and marketing decisions.

Jan 1, 1992

By A. Bleier, E. D. Goddard, R. D. Kulkarni

The influence of the collector structure on the amine (RNH2, R=alkyl) flotation of quartz has been systematically investigated using a modified Hallimond microflotation cell. This study focuses on the effect of varying chain length, branching in the alkyl group R, polyfunctionality of the collector molecule, and alkyl substitution on the nitrogen atom. In addition, adsorption at the solution/air interface and electrokinetic results for the solid/solution interface were employed to further elucidate the role and the interrelation of the structural parameters in the flotation process. Estimates of an electrical double layer attractive energy between the bubble and the solid particle are made.

Jan 1, 1976