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By S. P. Howell, F. B. Foley

Not infrequently, in the case of the failure of a metal structure, such as a bridge, tank, airplane, gun carriage, etc., a doubt arises whether the failure was due, among other causes, to the effect of an overburden or of an explosive maliciously or accidentally exploded in contact with it. As few means of discriminating between the effects of these causes have been known and these means were of a rough qualitative character, it was surprising to find in the record of an inquiry into the failure of a structure, the statement that, by observations on the Neumann bands in the structure, it was possible to determine the speed of breakage in the metal and to distinguish between a fracture caused by an explosion and one caused by an ordinary mechanical strain. Such a criterion, if well proved, was of value to the explosives experts of the Bureau of Minea, the Ordnance Department of the United States Army and the Bureau of Ordnance of the United States Navy, but search showed no record of it in the literature nor did any of the metallurgists and metallographers consulted know of any data on which such a criterion could be based having been assembled and critically studied. However, it was universally held that there was promise in the idea and that there exkted unique facilities at the Bureau of Mines Experiment Station at Pittsburgh for the preparation, under definitely known conditions, of material for study by metallographers, and that material of value might also be obtained from the proving grounds of the Army and Navy. Therefore, with the approval of the Director of the Bureau of Minea and the Chiefs of Ordnance of the War and Navy Departments, the Chairman of the Division of Engineering of the National Research Council, on April 12, 1919, appointed a Committee on the Investigation of Neumann Bands, which has since been engaged in this study and which, after some slight change in its personnel, consists now of the following: Dr. William Campbell, Advisory Metallurgist, Bureau of Ordnance, Navy Department. P. B. Foley, Metallurgist, Bureau of Mines. S. P. Howell, Explosives Engineer, Bureau of Mines. Comdr. 0. M. Hustvedt, U. S. N., Bureau of Ordnance, Navy Department. Dr. Charles E. Munroe, Chief Explosives Chemist, Bureau of Mines.

Jan 1, 1923

By Orlando E. Romig

As metals and alloys are composed of an aggregate of allotriomorphic crystals or grains, each possessing an individual orientation, the physical characteristics of a metal or an alloy are closely related to the properties of the individual crystals. The preparation and study of single metallic crystals are, therefore, matters of considerable importance. The advent of the X-ray spectrograph as a valuable metallurgical tool has magnified the importance of this subject, because the interpretation of some X-ray spectrographs is difficult unless single crystals are used in these studies. Previous Work The first paper, as far as the writer knows, on the behavior or preparation of single crystals of metals is by Baker.' He describes the behavior of extruded wires of sodium and potassium. These wires, when pulled in tension, instead of showing the usual conical fracture common to most metals, had a chisel-shaped fracture when they were broken. I and 11, Fig. 1, have a similar fracture. Baker checked his results by preparing single crystal wires from molten sodium and potassium and observing their properties. He pre- pared the wires by filling glass tubes, under oil, with the molten metal. The surfaces of the strained wires showed slip bands of remarkable clearness of which photographs are shown in his paper. He concluded that these wires were single crystals and "that the portions of the metal brought into play are cubes. Such cubes, when placed so that a plane through two opposite edges was parallel to the axis of the wire, would allow of lateral contraction by faces gliding over one another in one direction only and not in the direction at right angles."

Jan 1, 1927

By H. H. Stout

In the early fall of 1925, the writer was conducting, in the Ledoux and Co. laboratory, New York, experiments directed toward ascertaining the effect on its impurity content when cathode copper was subjected to a current of various gases at an elevated temperature below the melting point. The apparatus consisted of a vertical I-in. dia. silica tube about 12 in. long, heated on the outside. The cathodes were broken to pass 3/8-in. mesh, and a current of various different gases was passed up through a 4-in. long column of these loose cathode particles in the vertical tube furnace. Temperature was maintained to 1500º to 1600ºF. and the gas treatments lasted from 3 to 6 hr. The writer observed that whenever reducing gas (H2 or CO) was used, these cathode particles stuck together at points of contact with each other. The cohesion was so marked and tenacious that an examination was made of the fractured surfaces, when cathode particles were broken from the cluster. Crystal growth was always found to have taken place across the surfaces where separate particles were in contact, but only after all oxides, sulphates, etc., had been completely removed. The idea of a possible new process was then conceived and was disclosed to A. M. Smoot (V. P. Ledoux and Co.) with intent to obtain his views. The first conception as given Smoot was "to gas-clean broken cathodes, put them in an extrusion press, solidify and extrude them at around 1500ºF." Smoot's reaction, after a few moments considera- tion, was, "It looks perfectly all right to me.'' The writer and his assistants, W. H. Osborn and H. H. Stout, Jr., after conferring as to ways and means, decided to go ahead with preliminary laboratory experiments, which, it was thought, would move the new process from the possible to the probable. This program followed a course indicated by three basic considerations: 1. Since brittle cathodes were often unintentionally produced, it seemed probable that the laws controlling this type of deposition could be ascertained. 2. We had already proved the gas-cleaning feature. 3. There remained to prove: whether a sound, homogeneous metal billet could be produced with crystal growth established over the entire surface of each individual particle in the billet; and, if so, what would be the physical properties? Osborn arranged with Columbia University for conducting experiments in its research laboratory to prove or disprove the third item; Columbia assigned C. A. Phillipi, Jr. to assist in the project. A press with a cylinder 2 in. high and of I-in. dia. was used. It was surrouilded and heated by a resistance coil 01 Nichrome wire. Broken tough cathodes were used. Experimental Procedure The first run took place March 18, 1926. The resistance wire gave out when temperature of 1000ºF. was obtained. Pressure was immediately applied: perceptible ram movement stopped when 39,000 lb. per sq. in. on the copper was reached, with a maxi-

Jan 1, 1941

By W. S. CAYPLESS, H. O. Hofman, E. E. HARRINGTON

1. INTRODUCTION. AT the Lake Superior meeting, September, 1904, Messrs. A. Gibb and R. C. Philp presented a paper entitled " The Constitution of Mattes Produced in Copper Smelting,)' in which they concluded that ferrous and cuprous sulphides formed the chemical compound, 5 Cu2S, fee. They arrived at this inference from the observed fact that a matte containing Cu2S, 90.4, and Fee, 9.6 per cent (or, in round figures, Cu2S, 90, and Fee, 10 per cent.), did not contain any metallic copper, while one with more than 10 per cent of FeS readily dissolved copper, and with less than this amount retained copper in mechanical suspension. Although they determined the melting-points of five mattes containing from 32.6 to 80.1 per cent of copper, they did not draw a freezing-point curve, as the necessary apparatus was not available. A microscopical examination of 11 polished samples, gave them a grayish-black field of very uniform appearance, except that 5 of the specimens showed the presence of metallic copper. The object of the present investigation was to supplement the above paper by drawing the freezing-point curve of the series ferrous sulphide cuprous sulphide, and to see how the constitution could be further, revealed by microscopical work. The results obtained lead to conclusions very different from those of Gibb and Philp. While their paper bears the date 1904, it was published only in 1906.2 In the meantime, Bolles3 had presented his paper, "The Concentration of Gold and Silver in Iron Bottoms." The raw material which formed the basis of the research was a matte containing Fe, 61.68, and Cu, 11.20

Jan 1, 1907

By M. G. Corson

THE iron-silicon alloy series has always been one of the most puzzling among the binary alloys. Examining the well known mechanical properties of the iron-rich alloys only we meet the following situation: The ultimate strength and yield point of alloys worked and annealed under the usual conditions represent nearly a straight line function of the silicon content up to 4.5 per cent. silicon (Fig. 1). Starting at the ultimate strength of 35,000 lb. and at a yield point of 16,000 lb. for pure electrolytic iron, one reaches a maximum strength of 93,000 lb. and a maximum yield point of 74,000 lb. at 4.5 per cent. silicon. This corresponds to an increase in ultimate strength by 13,000 lb. per each per cent. of silicon added and nearly the same rate applies to the yield point. The data mentioned are taken from the investigation by T. D. Yensen,1 and while they do not exactly corroborate the results obtained by earlier investigators, they seem to be the most correct. Plastic properties of the alloys are controlled by a much more complicated relationship. Up to 2.5 per cent. Si, the elongation stays close to 50 per cent. (in 2 in.) and the area reduction amounts to 85 per cent;, a situation that forms the usual feature of all alloys representing strictly solid solutions. The plasticity of the latter is always nearly equal to that of their base metal. Beyond 2.5 per cent. silicon, the situation becomes much more complicated. Yensen observed an enormous drop in elongation and area reduction at about 2.65 per cent. silicon, where the first hardly reaches 10 per cent. and the second is still lower; he found, however, a considerable recovery in plasticity at about 2.8 per cent. Si and up to 4.5 per cent. Si it is represented by 20 per cent. for the elongation and 30 per cent. for area reduction.

Jan 1, 1928

By H. Herbert Hughes

ECONOMISTS have predicted that the present business depression ultimately may pay big dividends to industry through the cumulative savings resulting from technical improvements and merchandising advances that might never have been developed under normal conditions. Waste prevention is a sound medicine for economic ills. In theory, this prescription may be applied not' only to raw materials, but also to labor, fuel, over- head, and other phases of production. Actually, how- ever, regardless of the efficiency of operating practices, waste is inevitable in the production of many commodities. The problem then becomes one of profitable utilization of waste rather than prevention.

Jan 1, 1932

By L. F. Stutzman, George Thodos

A new graphical method, which is a modification of that proposed by Buckley and Leverett', is presented for the determination of the displacing fluid saturation at breakthrough for frontal drive mechanisms. This method is applicable to all types of fluids, which may be either soluble or insoluble in the oil at reservoir and injection conditions. This adaptation has unique advantages in handling problems in which either liquids or gases are the displacing fluids. INTRODUCTION In the displacement of oil from a reservoir with water or gas injected into the formation or by the expansion of a gas cap, the determination of breakthrough or flood advance is important to define the initial and subordinate phases of the operation. Thus, the determination of the displacing fluid saturation at breakthrough is fundamental to the establishment of over-all reservoir production. Methods for analyzing this saturation and for calculating production rates have been previously reported1,'*".". All of these methods utilize the rate equation for linear flow developed by Buckley and Leverett1. xs = QT - Qn/A? (?fu/?Su) .....(1) Sp where f, represents the volumetric fraction of displacing fluid in the total flowing fluid within the reservoir as is defined by: fo = 1/1+ ku/kd µn/µn .......(2) Since the time, ?, necessary for the flood front to travel distance ?X is unknown, Eq. 1 cannot be solved directly for the determination of the breakthrough point. Therefore, it becomes necessary to solve Eq. 1 simultaneously with an equation representing a fluid bal-ance on the reservoir behind the flood front. To develop such a fluid balance equation, it has been assumed that the fluid composition is uniform in the reservoir behind the flood front. Based upon this assumption, the follow-ing equation can be derived from a material balance on the displacing fluid: x = (?X) s Dx ? x=0 [ Snx - Sn1 ] dx = QT - Qn/A? It is readily observed that the displacing fluid satura-tion behind the flood front, Snx, may be determined through the simultaneous application of Eqs. 1 and 3. Although the approach may vary, this objective re-mains the same for all of the previously mentioned graphical or analytical methods. After Sox is determined, it is then possible to calculate the gas-oil and/or water-oil ratios and the rates during the initial and subordinate phases of production, and thereby define the production history of the reservoir. In this presentation only the de-termination of Snx is considered, and the reader is re-ferred to the several texts in reservoir engineering2,4,5 for a complete discussion on the methods for establish-ing the production history of a reservoir. PROPOSED METHOD FOR DETERMINING Snx Since at any time the quantity, QT - Qn/A? is a constant, Eq. 1 may be expressed in differential form as follows: dxsn = QT - Qn/A? d (? fn/? Sn) sn .....(4) Eq. 4 may be substituted directly into Eq. 3 to obtain: ? fn/? Sn ? [ Snz - Sn] QT - Qn/A? d ( ? fn/? Sn) = QT - Qn/A? ...............(5) Eq. 5 simplifies to the expression: ? fn/? Sn ? [ Snz - Sn] QT - Qn/A? d ( ? fn/? Sn) = 1 ....(6)

Jan 1, 1958

By J. J. Bowman, E. H. Dix

A LACK of experimental data illustrating the effect of composition, particularly in respect to impurities, on the mechanical properties and corrosion resistance of aluminum-alloy die castings induced the authors and their associates to undertake a limited study of these relations. A number of commercial alloys and several experimental variations of a commercial alloy were used for the investigation. Mechanical property, growth, steam, paraffin, salt spray and atmospheric exposure tests were employed. This paper deals with the more accelerated tests and the results they have produced. It is concluded that a high-silicon alloy with all impurities except iron strictly limited to small amounts will develop an excellent resistance to corrosion and retain satisfactory mechanical properties and casting characteristics. As a direct result of this investigation an alloy of this character with superior corrosion resistance is now available commercially. In general, copper increases the strength and decreases the elongation and corrosion resistance. Tin reduces the mechanical properties and the resistance to corrosion. Iron reduces the elongation and, if excessively high, may adversely affect the tensile strength. Even excessively high iron contents do not affect the corrosion resistance, which is fortunate for the die caster as it is this element that is the most difficult to control. Nickel and zinc in limited amounts do not seem to affect the properties or corrosion resistance of at least the high-silicon alloy. Growth tests have confirmed the previous common belief that dimensional changes under either dry or wet conditions at 100° C. are too small to be of practical importance.

Jan 1, 1935

By Charles C. Goddard

Since discovery of silver-gold lode deposits in 1864, the Butte district has produced more than $2.25 billion worth of copper, zinc, manganese, silver, and gold, an unprecedented value in the mining world. Exhaustion of the gold placer deposits along Silver Bow Creek, southwest of Butte, forced the early-day placer miners to turn their attention to the bold out- crops of the many veins exposed on the hillsides above the placer diggings. These outcrops bore silver and gold, and enough so that many lode claims were located. Such famous silver mines as the Alice, Moulton, Magna Carta, Nettie, and Blue Bird were developed. These and many smaller operations contributed to making Montana the leading silver-producing state in the 1880's. As depth was gained in the silver mines in certain parts of the district, occurrence of zinc minerals became troublesome. Zinc was not recoverable at the time, and in the chloridizing, roasting, and amalgamation of the ores, silver and gold recovery was greatly reduced. A period of active silver mining continued until 1892, when a decline in the price of silver brought the silver mining period to a close. Elsewhere in the district it was discovered that while some of the veins contained silver ores in the oxidized portions, the predominant minerals that were deeper were copper-bearing. Marcus Daly exposed rich copper ore on the 300 level of the Anaconda mine in 1891, and mining in the district disclosed that copper was destined to be developed in abundance. Early copper ore shipments were made to Swansea, Wales.

Jan 3, 1959

By AIME AIME

THE stage is set for the 1930 Annual Meeting. It will take place in the Engineering Societies Building. Feb. 17, 18, 19 and 20, and an unusual pro- gram of technical papers, symposia, lectures and addresses, interspersed with luncheons, dinners, excursions and worthwhile entertainment for the four days has been arranged. The curtain rises on Monday morning and the first act is by the entire company-registration. Then the meeting hits its stride, for there are ten technical sessions on Monday, and the range of subjects includes most of the Institute membership. The Committee on Coal and Coal Products, which is about to become the Coal Division, presents a symposium of a dozen or more papers on Coal Classification, concluding its afternoon session with several papers on general subjects. At its luncheon between sessions, C. E. Bockus, president of the National Coal Association, will be the honored guest. Papers of theoretical character will be discussed at the morning session of the Committee on Geophysical Prospecting; at its afternoon session there will be presented summaries of results obtained at various properties by methods described at previous meetings of this group and permanently recorded in "Geophysical Prospecting," published by the Institute early in 1929. Members of the Petroleum Division should not overlook the paper by Theodor Zuschlag, on this Committee's program. It is entitled, "Oil Structure Mapping by the Sundberg Method." Members of the Iron and Steel and Institute of Metals divisions will find it profitable to attend the session on Engineering Education on Monday afternoon. E. A. Holbrook has arranged a program of ten-minute talks on Metallurgical Education which are designed to get down to "brass tacks." and the practical man may, in discussion, contribute as well as learn. At 5 p. m. Thomas T. Read will lecture+ at Columbia University, on "Recent Progress in Economics of the Mineral Industries."

Jan 1, 1930

By AIME AIME

T HE Mining Methods Committee held its initial meeting* on Tuesday afternoon, with F. W. Bradley in the chair and W. Y. Westervelt as vice- chairman. The first paper to be presented was "A Plea for a U. S. Court of Patent Appeals," for which Kenneth W. Greenawalt ably pleaded. The paper (which was published in full in last month's issue) is so carefully prepared that no synopsis can do it justice. It discusses the opposed views of some patent lawyers and other lawyers and members of the judiciary as, for example, Chief Justice Taft who is quoted as saying in 1921: "I think it is a great deal better to take a first class lawyer and a first-class judge and make him a good patent expert than it is to take a patent expert and try to make him a first-class lawyer and a good judge." Mr. Greenawalt argued the need for specialized scientific and engineering interest and understanding to enable a lawyer or judge to prepare or interpret patent specifications and decide the originality necessary for a valid invention. He proposed the special U. S. Court of Patent Appeals to also counteract the costly confusion and injustice now ruling where a patent may be declared valid in the courts of certain States and invalid by the courts of other States.

Jan 1, 1930

By Henry Mulryan

DIATOMS are microscopic aquatic plants of the order Bacillariaceae. They are unicellular plants with skeletons made up of amorphous opaline silica. The skeletons show highly ornate, complicated geometrical designs. Diatoms live in water virtually everywhere. They are found in clean sea water, brackish water, and fresh-water lakes and ponds. When conditions are right, diatoms propagate by subdivision in huge numbers. Alkalinity, temperature, and the presence of high concentrations of silica in the water largely control diatom life. When the diatoms die the skeletons drop to the bottom of their habitat to form oozes of vary-ing thicknesses. DIATOMITES Diatomite, or diatomaceous earth, is composed essentially of the siliceous remains of the diatoms, although other organic skeletons are also present, especially in sea-water deposits where radiolaria, sponges and silico-flagellates are common. Impurities are generally carbonaceous material, fine-grained silt, volcanic ash and dust, and occasional coarse grains of sand. Diatomites are marine, brackish, or fresh-water, depending upon types of diatoms and their method of deposition.

Jan 1, 1939

The paper relates to the laboratory and pilot plant studies that have been carried out by Sherritt Gordon Mines Ltd., Metallurgical Research Div., in developing the ammonia pressure leach process for extracting Cu, Ni, Co, and S from high grade Ni concentrate produced from Lynn Lake ores and describes in some detail the chemistry of the process. In the leaching stage air, ammonia, and sulphide minerals react in a sequence of inter-related steps to produce soluble amines of Ni, Cu, and Co in a solution containing sulphate, thiosulphate, polythionate, and sulphamate ions and a controlled amount of free ammonia, the iron and other components of the concentrate remaining as an insoluble residue which is separated from the leach solution by filtration. The pregnant solution produced in leaching is further treated by boiling to precipitate and remove Cu as cuprous sulphide, leaving a copper-free solution with a composition suitable for subsequent precipitation of Ni and Cu by H,

Jan 3, 1955

By Y. C. Liu, R. H. Richman

The effects of gel,manium and tin on the deformation and 9-e-crystallization textures of copper have been explored in detail with in the copper-rich terminal solid solutions. Addition of solute to copper produces a change in deformation texture from the copper type to the 70 :30 brass type. This transition has been measured quantitatively The types mid proportions of recrystal-lization components have been determined as a function of com-position, and correlation of recrystallization components with specific deformation components is discussed. On the basis of information available in the literature, it has been suggested that the effect of solute elements on the recrystallization texture of copper

Jan 1, 1961

There were two official representatives of Foreign Governments as guests at the Chicago Meeting. One was Frederick Goransson, managing director of the Saudvikens Steel Works, who represented the Jernkonteret, the Iron and Steel In-stitute of Sweden, and who came to this country especially for our meeting. The other distinguished guest was Commander Toublet, who repre-sented the French Embassy. Commander Toublet delivered a most polished address at the Banquet, dealing with the felicitous relations existing between this country and France for the last 150 years. Com-mander Toublet was accompanied by Mrs. Toublet, who won the hearts of all the ladies present, whose guest she was.

Jan 11, 1919

By AIME AIME

ON MAY 22 the American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers will commemorate the sixtieth anniversary of its founding at Wilkes- Barre, Pa., in May, 1871. The Directors have transferred the May meeting of the Board to Wilkes-Barre, and the Pennsylvania Anthracite Section has invited as many members of the Institute as can to be present at this time and to join with their fellow-engineers at Wilkes-Barre in the inspection trip through a portion of the anthracite district that has been planned. Ac- cess to Wilkes-Barre is easy, from nearby points, over excellent automobile roads, or by train. The distance from New York is only about 140 miles. , It is hoped to engage a special car for those travelling by train from New York, which will leave the Pennsylvania Station over the Lehigh Valley Railroad at 11:50 p.m., arriving in Wilkes-Barre the next morning. Return can be made from Wilkes-Barre by sleeper the same evening, arriving in New York Saturday morning. Other trains are available for those who prefer a daylight journey.

Jan 1, 1931

By C. R. Van Hise

PART I.-GENERAL PRINCIPLES. [ ]

Jan 1, 1902

By Kalervo Rankama

UNTIL a few years ago, geological mapping, the study of ore boulders, and different geophysical methods were the principal means used in the systematic search for mineral deposits covered by a layer of disintegration products or soil. These methods have been developed to a high stage of perfection as far as the geometrical definition of the conductor is considered. Use of geophysical methods in prospecting is based on the fact that an ore body differs from the country rock not only geologically but also in its physical properties. The general drawbacks and complications included in the use of geophysical methods are well known to everyone who has been using them, so need not be entered into here in detail. One of the more important ones is the fact that geophysical methods are unable to furnish information concerning the chemical composition of the ore bodies responsible for the indications. Further, the ores of many metals, such as silver, gold, beryllium, zinc, mercury, tin, lead, vanadium, antimony, chromium. molybdenum, tungsten, manganese, cobalt, nickel, and the platinum metals cannot be directly located by known geophysical methods, owing to lack of physical characteristics suitable for distinguishing them from the country rock. Thus it is quite natural that efforts have been made to develop direct methods for prospecting and locating ore bodies of the elements named. Known as chemical, biogeo-chemical, and geobotanical methods of prospecting, these have been much improved during recent years. A brief review of these methods and of some results obtained with them will be presented in the following, on the basis of available information and my own experience.

Jan 1, 1947

Texture Transition in Ordered CuAu, by E. A. Starke, Jr., J. C. Ogle, and C. J. Sparks, Jr., Trans. TMS-AIME, 1969, vol. 245, pp. 169-70. pole figures should have had two parts not one. On the Estimation of Oxygen Absorption by Continuous Molten Metal Streams, by J. Szekely, Trans. TMS-AIME, 1969, vol. 245, pp. 341-44.

Jan 1, 1970